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THE 


AMERICAN  COTTAGE  BUILDER: 


A    SERIES    OF 


DESIGNS,  PLAINS,  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


FROM   $200   TO   $20,000. 


FOR 


HOMES    FOR   THE    PEOPLE 


BY     JOHN     BULLOCK, 

ARCHITECT,     CIVIL     ENGINEER,     MECHANICIAN,    AND     EDITOR     OP 

'•THE     RUDIMENTS    OF     ARCHITECTURE     AND 

BUILDING,"     ETC.,    ETC. 


NEW    EDITION  — RE  VI  SED, 


NEW  YORK 


STRINGER    &    TOWNSEND, 

222     BROADWAY, 
1854. 


> 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1854, 

BY    STRINGER  &  TOWNSEND, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


TO 

REV.  ALEXANDER  L.  HAMILTON,  D.  D., 

PRESIDENT   AND   PROFESSOR   OF 

MORAL,    MENTAL,    AND    NATURAL    SCIENCE 

IN 

ANDREW     COLLEGE, 

TREXTOX.    TEN'XESSEE, 

THIS    BOOK 

13 

INSCRIBED, 

/S   A 

Testimony  of  Respect  for 
HIS    ABILITIES,     HIS    V I B T  C  E  8. 

AND 

IES  WARM   FRIEXDSEIP. 


vi 


B 

$7 


PREFACE. 


The  object  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  designs  of 
cottages,  from  a  twenty-five  dollar  cottage  to  a 
twenty-five  thousand  dollar  palace — giving  estimates 
as  to  cost,  furnishing  plans  and  specifications,  and 
treating  upon  the  rudiments  of  the  Arts  called  into  ex- 
ercise by  the  practice  of  Cottage  Building. 

This  work  is  published  uniform  with  the  revised 
edition  of  "  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,"  edited  by  the  undersigned  and  published  by 
Stringer  &  Townsend,  and  such  portions  of  that  vol- 
ume as  might  properly:  have  been  incorporated  in  this 
have  been  omitted. 

The  chapter  on  Warming  and  Ventilation  is 
edited  from  Tomilson,  and  that  on  Gardening,  from 
Glenny.  Wherever,  in  other  portions  of  the  work, 
we  have  availed  ourselves  of  the  labors  of  others,  we 
have  given  them  proper  credit. 

Although  the  book  is  intended  to  be  of  a  practical 
character,  I  thought  it  not  improper,  in  the  chapter 
entitled  "  Generally,"  to  show  the  position  and  the 
difficulties  of  the  Artist.  In  that  chapter,  and  the  one 
entitled  "  The  Artist's  Calling,"  I  have  discussed 
Art  and  Artists,  and  their  influence  on  the  progress 


PREF  A  C  E. 

of  civilization,  giving  to  them  their  proper  position  as 

a  motor,   rather   than   an   attendant  of  Progress.     I 

hold  that   the  Architect,  to   attain   eminence   in   his 

calling,  in  this  age,  must  recogmzu  and  act  upon  the 

principles  there  incnlnatpd 

JOHN  BULLOCK. 


CONTEXTS. 


.« , » _ 

pa  as 

CHAPTER  I. 
Generally 11 

CHAPTER   II. 
The  Various  Parts 15 

CHAPTER   III. 
Terra  Del  Fuego  Cottage 35 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Prairie  Cottage 37 

CHAPTER   V. 
The  Farm  Cottage 43 

CHAPTER   VI. 
The  Village  Cottage 49 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Italian  Cottage 50 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Thatched  Cottage 51 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Cottage  of  the  Society  for   Improving  the  Condi- 
tion of  the  Poor 53 

CHAPTER   X. 
Warming  and  Ventilation 54 

CHAPTER   XI. 
Model  Cottage 186 

CHAPTER   XII. 
Bubal  Cottage 1,-9 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Octagon  Cottage 192 


CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  XIY. 
Drainage 195 

CHAPTER  XY. 
Rural  Homes 210 

CHAPTER  XYI. 
Paint  and  Color 225 

CHAPTER  XYH. 

Suburban  Residences 235 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 
Landscape  Gardening 245 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Cost 316 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Two  Residences 318 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
The  Artist's  and  Artisan's  Calling  .         .        .     322 


DESIGNS. 


1.  FRONTISPIECE  .... 

2.  BIRD  COTTAGE 

3.  PRAmiE  COTTAGE  . 

4.  TERRA  DEL  FUEGO  COTTAGE 

5.  FARM  COTTAGE 

6.  VILLAGE  COTTAGE  . 

7.  ITALIAN  COTTAGE  . 

8.  THATCHED  COTTAGE 

9.  COTTAGE  OF  THE  SOCIETY  FOR 

CONDITION  OF  THE  POOR 

10.  OCTAGON  COTTAGE 

11.  MODEL  COTTAGE 

12.  RURAL  HOME  No.  1. 

13.  RURAL  COTTAGE 

14.  RURAL  HOME  No.  2. 

15.  RURAL  HOME  No.  4,  North  Elevation 

16.  SUBURBAN  OCTAGONAL  COTTAGE       . 

17.  RURAL  HOME  No.  4,  South  Elevation 

18.  RURAL  HOME  No.  4,  West  Elevation 

19.  RURAL  HOME  No.  1— Plan 

20.  RURAL  HOME  No.  3  .        .        .        . 

21.  BYZANTINE  COTTAGE  . 

22.  GOTHIC  SUBURBAN  RESIDENCE 


IMPROV 


ING 


THE 


PAGE 
11 
25 

35 
49 
73 
97 
121 

169 

181 

193 

205 

217   , 

219 

221 

238 

253 

272 

273 

288 

301 

323 


ZW  lu  addition  to  the  above,  are  about  sixty  Plana  and  Illustrations  of 
the  Designs,  in  detail. 


THE    A  if  ERIC  AN 


COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER     I. 


GENERALLY. 

To  decide  vihcrt  to  build  a  cottage  is  quite  as  difficult 
a  task  as  to  tell  how  to  build  it.  The  location  of  a  house 
adds  as  much  to  its  beauty  and  convenience,  as  does  its 
style  or  arrangement.  The  bird  which  builds  its  nest, 
is  one  of  nature's  own  Architects,  and  practices  its  truest 
art.      It  first  seeks  a  proper  locality,  and  usually  selects 

a  place  at  such  au  height 
from  the  ground  as  to  I  e 
secure  from  disturbing 
animals.  It  builds  in  the 
fork  of  a  tree,  or  the 
beams  of  a  bam,  so  as 
to  be  unlikely  to  be 
moved  by  the  winds  ;  it 
seeks  protection  from  tl  • 
storms  under  the  over- 
hanging leaves,  the  roof 
of  the  barn,  or  perhaps 
the  thatch  on  the  hay- 
stack ;  and  thus  it  is  that  the  bird  shows  its  architectural 
skill  in  selecting  a  spot  token  to  build  a  home.  For  the 
purposes  for  which  the  bird  desires  to  use  its  nest,  for  the 
objects  which  it  wishes  to  gain,  it  perfectly  adapts  its  means 

10  its  end. 

1* 


12  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

We  do  not  understand  the  object  of  Architecture  to  be 
to  tell  the  bird  that  he  should  no  longer  be  a  bird  living  in 
trees,  or  to  say  to  the  monks  on  Mont  Blanc,  "your  loca- 
tion is  bad,  cold,  dreary  and  uuinviting."  Neither  is  it  her 
province  to  say  to  the  rustic,  "  thou  should'st  be  a  civilian;" 
or  to  the  civilian,  "thou  should'st  seek  a  rural  home  ;"  or 
even  to  the  savage,  "thou  should'st  build  a  house  after  the 
manner  of  the  civilized  nations." 

The  Architect  must  first  know  the  objects  desired,  before 
he  can  decide  as  to  the  proper  locality  or  style.  He  comes 
to  the  monks  of  St.  Bernard,  and  they  say,  "  we  wish  to 
stay  on  Alpine  heights,  amid  continued  storms  and  eternal 
snow,  to  practice  the  rites  and  to  perform  the  duties  of  our 
holy  religion,  and  relieve  the  suffering  and  weary  that  pass 
this  way."  Some  men  might  answer  that  more  good  could 
be  done  in  other  localities,  or  in  the  practice  of  other  reli- 
gions. Not  so  the  true  Architect,  He  seizes  upon  the 
monk's  aspirations  and  desires,  selects  a  locality  as  near  as 
practicable  to  where'  the  passing  traveler  would  be  exposed 
to  the  most  hardships  and  dangers,  and  be  most  likely  to 
need  assistance.  He  then,  in  that  same  vicinity,  selects  the 
spot  least  exposed  to  the  storms  and  the  tempests,  and 
commences  his  edifice. 

Thus  it  is,  that  the  desired  object  or  end  must  first  be 
made  known  to  the  Architect,  and  it  is  then  his  province 
to  practice  that  peculiar  and  God-like  attribute  of  seeing 
the  end  from  the  beginning,  and  adapting  his  means  to  the 
consummation  of  his  purpose.  It  is  not  Architectural  to 
say  to  the  residents  of  the  granite  hills  of  New  Hampshire, 
"  you  can  find  a  more  pleasant  home,  a  more  beautiful  and 
rural  residence  in  the  everglades  of  Florida;"  or  to  say  to 
the  gold-seeker  upon  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento,  "more 
beautiful,  pleasant  and  commodious  is  the  cottage  home 
of  your  mother,  on  the  banks  of  the  St,  Lawrence."  But 
it  is  Architectural,  to  go  to  the  granite  hills  and  build  for 
its  residents  homes  convenient  for  the  objects  which  its 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  13 

occupants  shall  desire,  and  easy  of  access  to  and  for  the 
business  which  each  lias  decided  for  himself  to  pursue. 

Every  nation  and  people  have  some  peculiar  systems  or 
principles  of  government,  of  ethics,  of  religion,  which  form 
a  part  of  the  public  mind,  morals  and  sentiments.  They 
control  and  subdue  the  passions,  the  aspirations  and  the 
desires;  they  develop  themselves,  in  a  more  or  less  modified 
form,  in  every  feature  and  ramification  of  society;  in  modes  of 
living,  and  in  the  Architecture  of  the  country.  The  Archi- 
tects, the  Painters  and  the  Sculptors  of  former  ages  and 
countries,  have  developed  these  feelings,  in  most  instances, 
in  a  perfect  manner.  We  say  perfect,  not  because  the  prin- 
ciple or  religion  developed  was  perfect,  but  because  it  was 
fully  and  perfectly  made  manifest  and  shown.  Take,  for 
instance,  Angclo's  painting  of  The  Last  Judgment — in  which, 
by  the  side  of  the  Supreme  Judge  and  his  angels,  sits  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  Infidel  may  say  there  is  no  last  judg- 
ment, and  the  Protestant  will  say  that  Mary  will  at  that 
day  be  like  any  other  creature  ;  but  not  so  thought  Angelo 
—  not  so  thought  the  Catholic  world,  at  that  time  ;  and 
Catholics,  Protest  ants  and  Infidels,  all  agree  that  Angelo 
was  one  of  the  greatest  and  truest  Artists  that  ever  lived. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  productions  of  great  minds,  in  one 
country  or  age,  copied  by  another,  are  far  from  being  proofs 
of  the  greatness  of  him  who  copies  them  The  man  who,  in 
the  American  Senate,  should  repeat  Demosthenes'  greatest 
oration,  instead  of  proving  himself  a  statesman,  would  show 
himself  a  fool.  The  Architect  that  copies  a  Greek  or 
Roman  edifice  for  an  American  occupant,  shows  himself  less 
than  an  artist.  The  peculiarities  of  the  American  people, 
their  desires,  their  occupations  and  wants,  must  first  be 
apprehended  and  understood,  before  any  Architect,  however 
great,  can  successfully  and  truly  become  an  Architect  for 
America.  No  man  has  contributed  more  to  the  true  Archi- 
tecture of  the  country  than  the  lamented  Downing:  pos- 
sessing at  once  the  genius  of  the  artist,  the  knowledge  and 


14  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

skill  of  the  mechanic,  and  the  spirit  of  the  people,  he  cor- 
rected and  improved  the  popular  taste  for  rural  homes.  He 
was  a  perfect  artist,  and  his  death,  in  early  manhood,  was  a 
national  bereavement  ;  but  his  fame  was  firmly  established 
ere  he  died,  and  bis  memory  will  ever  remain  green  in  the 
affectionate  remembrances  of  his  countrymen. 

In  Catholic  churches,  where  the  celebration  of  the  mass  is 
the  chief  feature  of  public  worship,  the  altar  is  justly  and 
properly  the  most  prominent  thing  in  the  church  :  built  of 
the  most  costly  material — of  the  finest  workmanship — the 
most  expensively  ornamented — the  most  easily  observed 
from  every  part  of  the  building.  This  is  correct.  It  gives 
expression  to  the  ruling  idea  in  the  Catholic's  mind.  The 
Protestant  may  ridicule  it,  but  the  Architect  designs  for 
him  the  simple  lectern  or  the  elevated  pulpit,  all  in  conso- 
nance with  his  creed.  Did  the  Architect  do  less  than  this, 
he  would  be  virtually  saying,  "  be  no  longer  a  Catholic,"  or, 
"  be  no  longer  a  Protestant."  True,  if  it  be  the  Architect's 
desire  to  cripple  the  expression  of  the  Catholic  or  Protest- 
ant mind — if  that  be  the  object — he  can  do  it,  and  do  it 
artistically  ;  but  that  is  never  required.  Neither  Catholics 
nor  Protestants  want  their  churches  built  so  as  to  cripple  a 
fair  expression  of  their  respective  creeds,  and  neither  Pro- 
testants nor  Catholics  build  churches  for  each  other. 

As  it  is  with  churches,  so  is  it  with  cottages.  The  pur- 
poses for  which  the  house  is  desired,  the  character  and  sen- 
timents of  the  surrounding  people,  the  surrounding  scenery, 
the  conveniences  of  water,  drainage,  &c,  are  all  to  be  con- 
sidered and  understood,  before  any  directions  can  be  given 
where  or  how  to  build  a  cottage.  In  our  descriptions  of 
different  plans,  we  shall  speak  more  in  detail  of  each  of 
these  subjects,  with  special  reference  to  each  particular 
case. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BflLDER.  15 


CHAPTER    II. 


THE    VARIOUS    PARTS. 
WALLS. 

The  Walls  of  cottages  may  be  formed  of  a  great  variety 
of  materials,  and  the  nature  of  the  material  used  is  a  fertile 
source  of  variety  and  beauty.  Asa  geueral  principle,  it  ma  j 
be  remarked  that  the  walls  of  a  cottage  should  always  be 
built  of  the  materials  furnished  by  the  soil  or  vicinity  where 
it  is  situated;  for  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world  the 
cheapest,  substance  for  building  walls  is  taken  from  the  earth 
or  other  substance  on  which  they  are  to  be  built. 

In  all  countries  where  wood  abounds  it  will  be  found  the 
cheapest,  and  also  a  very  suitable  material  for  building. 
The  common  objection,  its  want  of  durability,  may  be  in  a 
great  degree  remedied  by  raising  footings  of  masonry  or 
brickwork,  or  even  by  forming  a  platform  of  dry  earth  or  rub- 
bish, as  a  basement  for  the  frame-work  of  the  walls;  and  by 
having  the  timber  well  seasoned. 

The  employment  of  different  kinds  of  earth  for  construct- 
ing walls,  dates  from  a  very  early  period,  and  has  been  used 
by  nearly  all  nations.  Some  houses  have  lately  been  pulled 
down  which  the  title-deeds  show  to  have  been  nearly  200 
years  old.  The  cob-walls  of  Devonshire  have  beeu  known 
to  last  above  a  century  without  requiring  the  slightest 
repair;  and  the  Rev.  W.  T.  Elicombe,  who  has  himself  built 
several  houses  of  two  stories  with  cob-walls,  says,  that  he 
was  born  in  a  cob-wall  parsonage,  built  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  or  somewhat  earlier,  and  that  it  had  to  be  taken 
down  to  be  rebuilt  only  in  the  year  1831. 


16  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

Earths  of  different  kinds  may  be  formed  into  walls  in 
either  of  the  three  following  modes,  viz: — In  the  Pise  man- 
ner, by  lumps  moulded  in  boxes,  and  by  compressed  blocks. 

The  Pise  appears  to  be  the  best  method  of  forming  walls 
of  earth,  and  if  carefully  executed,  is  one  of  the  warmest, 
driest,  and  most  durable  that  can  be  erected,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  cheapest.  Pise  is  a  peculiar  mode  of 
forming  buildings,  particularly  those  of  cottages  with  some 
sort  of  stiff,  earthy  materials  of  a  loamy  quality. 

Various  modes  of  forming  these  walls  have  been  given  by 
different  writers:  the  following  appears,  however,  to  contaia 
most  of  the  advantages  sought  for. 

Gravel  is  the  best  sort  of  earth  for  this  kind  of  walling, 
and  it  should  be  of  a  loamy  nature,  with  a  large  proportion 
of  stones.  It  should  be  used  as  dry  as  possible,  no  cement 
being  required,  as  it  is  held  together  by  the  force  of  cohe- 
sion alone.  For  a  sample  of  the  gravel  wall,  see  the 
chapter  on  Octagon  Houses. 

The  foundation  upon  which  Pise  walling  is  to  be  erected 
\s  formed  of  stone  or  brickwork,  rising  not  less  than  six 
inches  or  a  foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  about 
Bix  inches  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the  intended  wall.  It 
should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  Roman  cement,  stone,  or 
tile,  to  prevent  the  rising  of  damp.  The  foundation  being 
completed,  frames  formed  of  planks  of  any  convenient 
length  are  fixed  by  resting  them  on  the  edges  of  the  stone 
or  brickwork,  on  either  side;  they  are  held  together  at  the 
top  and  bottom  by  iron  bolts,  and  kept  apart  at  the  top  by 
pieces  of  wood  called  "guides,"  placed  about  three  feet 
asunder.  The  Pise  gravel  is  then  thrown  in,  about  half  a 
bushel  at  a  time,  spread  evenly,  and  rammed  clown  till  the 
surface  becomes  perfectly  hard.  The  work  proceeds  in  this 
way  till  the  frame  is  filled  to  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the 
upper  bolts.  A  portion  of  the  wall  being  thus  completed, 
the  lower  bolts  are  drawn  out  and  the  upper  ones  slightly 
loosened:  the  frame  is  then  raised  bodily,  till  the  lower  holes 


TITE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  11 

rise  above  the  top  of  the  wall ;  the  bolts  are  then  replaced, 
and,  together  with  those  at  the  top,  screwed  up,  and  the 
work  is  proceeded  with  as  before. 

One  course  may  be  raised  upon  another,  as  thus  de- 
scribed, immediately  it  is  finished;  but  it  is  found  more 
convenient,  and  makes  better  work,  to  carry  on  the  courses 
horizontally,  and  keep  them  of  an  equal  height.  As  the 
work  proceeds,  the  tops  of  the  walls  are  kept  dry  by  copings 
or  other  means;  and  when  completed  to  the  necessary 
height,  the  roof  (which  should  be  already  framed  and  ready 
for  fixing)  is  immediately  put  on  and  covered  in. 

The  spaces  for  the  doorways  and  windows  are  formed  by 
placing  partition  boards,  fastened  to  the  frame-work  by 
holts,  of  the  breath  of  the  wall  and  height  of  the  frame,  on 
either  side  of  the  space  to  be  left  vacant;  and  pieces  of 
timber,  two  or  three  inches  thick,  shaped  like  truncated 
wedges,  are  then  inserted,  with  their  bases  in  the  wall  itself, 
and  with  their  smaller  sides  touching  the  partition  boards: 
to  these  timbers  the  door-posts  and  window-frames  are 
afterwards  fastened.  If  the  building  rises  above  a  ground 
story,  sleepers  or  plates  are  laid  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
walls,  as  in  the  ordinary  manner,  for  the  floor  joists  to  rest 
upon. 

It  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  give  drawings  or  par- 
ticular descriptions  of  the  frame-work  and  implements  used 
in  the  formation  of  Pise  walling,  as  they  are  probably  as 
well  known  as  any  other  of  the  implements  used  in  the 
Builder's  art:  a  slight  improvement,  however,  would  be 
effected  in  the  construction  of  the  frame-work  by  doing 
away  with  the  wooden  guides,  and  by  altering  the  form  of 
the  bolts. 

The  above  method  of  forming  Pise  walling  is  different 
from  the  mode  of  building  common  in  Devonshire  and  the 
West  of  England,  and  known  by  the  name  of  cob-bui/ding, 
as  will  be  seen,  and  is  greatly  superior  to  it,  and  far  more 
durable. 


18  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

The  substance  of  which  coi-walls  are  made,  is  loam  or 
clay  mixed  with  straw  and  moistened  with  water;  it  ia 
formed  in  frames,  in  the  same  way  as  that  above  mentioned, 
but  in  courses  of  not  more  than  one  foot  or  one  foot  and  a 
half  in  height;  it  is  then  left  some  time  to  dry  and  become 
consolidated,  before  a  second  course  is  imposed.  The  win- 
dow and  door-frames  are  inserted  as  the  work  proceeds,  and 
their  respective  openings  cut  out  after  the  work  is  finished. 
The  strength  and  solidity  of  cob-walling  depends  much 
upon  its  not  being  hurried  in  the  process  of  forming; 
and,  when  finished,  it  must  be  left  some  months  to  dry  and 
settle. 

Mud  walls,  or  walls  of  clay  lumps,  are  thus  formed :  The 
clay  to  be  used  is  first  freed  from  all  large  stones,  and 
soaked  with  as  much  water  as  it  will  absorb;  it  is  then  well 
beaten,  and  a  quantity  of  short  old  straw  added,  and  the  whole 
well  and  thoroughly  mixed  up  together.  The  mixing  should 
be  continued  by  the  treading  of  horses,  or  otherwise,  till  the 
clay  becomes  thoroughly  broken,  and  about  the  consistence 
of  mortar:  it  is  then  put  into  moulds,  18  inches  long,  12 
inches  wide,  and  G  inches  deep,  without  a  bottom,  and 
moulded  in  the  same  manner  as  bricks.  These  lumps  are 
then  dried  in  the  sun,  and  laid  in  the  usual  manner  with 
mortar.  For  a  sample  of  the  mud  or  unburnt  brick  wall, 
see  the  Chapter  on  Prairie  Cottages. 

As  brickwork  is  so  general  in  its  application,  and  as  the 
price  only  stands  in  the  way  of  its  still  more  universal, 
adoption,  it  may  be  useful  to  describe  the  methods  usually 
employed  in  building  hollow  walls  of  brick,  and  thus  to 
economize  material. 

Silverlock's  hollow  walls  are  constructed  of  bricks  set  on 
edge,  each  course  consisting  of  an  alternate  series  of  two 
bricks  placed  edgewise,  and  one  laid  across;  forming  a 
thickness  of  9  inches,  and  a  series  of  cells,  each  cell  9 
inches,  in  the  lengthway  of  the  wall,  4  inches  broad,  and  i\ 
inches  deep.     The  second  com-?e  is  laid  in  the  same  way.  but 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


19 


the  position  of  the  bricks  alternate,  or  break  joint  with  the 
first.  This  method  differs  from  that  of  Dearne,  described 
below,  in  being  carried  up  in  Flemish  instead  of  English 
bond.  It  is  represented  in  section  and  elevation  in  the  ad- 
joining figures. 


_L 

1 

i 

1    '    ' 

J 

_  .  . 

1                     1 

Section  of  Silverloek's  hollow 
wall,  9  inches  thick. 


Elevation. 


Another  method  of  building  hollow  brick  walls  is  that 
of  Mr.  Dearne,  in  which  the  lower  courses,  up  to  the  level 
of  the  floor,  are  formed  in  English  bond.  The  next  course 
consists  of  a  series  of  stretchers,  on  edge  on  each  side, 
thereby  leaving  a  hollow  space  throughout  the  length  of  the 
wall;  the  next  course  is  a  row  of  headers,  laid  flat;  and  the 
same  system  is  continued  throughout.  The  figures  repre- 
sent a  plan,  section,  and  elevation  of  the  wall. 


J  : i 


Plan  of  Dearne's  hollow  brick  wall, 
0  inches  thick. 


Section. 


20 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    WILDER. 


Elevation. 


Mr.  Loudon  has  proposed  a  method  of  building  hollow 
walls  1 1  inches  wide,  by  keeping  the  headers  or  cross  bricks 
2  inches  within  the  line  of  the  stretching  or  lengthway 
bricks,  and  consequently  the  latter  will  be  2  inches  apart 
along  the  centre  of  the  wall.  "  "Walls  built  in  this  way  are 
handsome  on  the  fair  side;  at  least  equally  strong  with  solid 
walls,  always  dry,  and  less  easily  penetrated  by  cold  in 
winter,  or  heat  in  summer.  The  inner  surface,  being  uneven, 
is  peculiarly  favorable  for  receiving  and  retaining  the 
plaster." 


Loudon's  hollow  brick  wall,  11  inches  thick. 

Another  mode,  12  inches  thick,  is  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing engraving. 


Hollow  brick  wall,  12  inches  thick. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


-I 


The  following  mode  of  building  a  hollow  brick  wall,  11 
inches  in  thickness,  requires  but  a  few  additional  bricks  to 
that  required  for  a  9-inch  solid  wall.     It  is  constructed  as 

shown  in  the  figure,  which  represeuts  one  course,  the  one 
above  that  being  reversed. 


• 

i 

i .  1 

Hollow  brick  wall,  14  inches  thick. 


In  the  chalk  counties  of  England  and  elsewhere,  the 
flint-built  walls  of  the  middle  ages  might  be  used.  They  are 
formed  by  building  the  flints  up  in  frames,  and  pouring 
cement  into  the  interstices.  The  cement  employed  may  be 
composed  of  thoroughly  burnt  chalk,  slaked  with  water,  and 
mixed  with  two  parts  of  rough  sharp  sand,  and  small  sharp 
gravel-stones;  the  whole  to  be  mixed  up  together  while  dry, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  added  to  make  it  into  a 
liquid  paste.  The  foundations  must  be  of  brick  or  stone, 
and  the  roof  should  have  a  bold  projection,  to  protect  the 
walls  from  the  rain.  In  this  mode  of  forming  walls  are 
included  all  the  small  land-stones  of  a  country,  sofarbrokeu 
as  to  incorporate  on  the  cementitious  principle  of  construc- 
tion. 

The  Roman  circus  at  Toulouse,  and  the  ancient  castle  at 
Hastings,  besides  many  other  buildings,  are  built  of  these 
materials,  and  have  endured  for  centuries. 

The  following  mode  of  constructing  external  walls  of 
framed  timber,  rubble,  and  plaster,  is  common  in  and  about 
Paris,  and  is  described  by  Mr.  Hosking: 

The  framed  timber  structure  being  completed,  strong 
oak  batten  laths  from  2  to  3  inches  wide  are  nailed  to  the 


22  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BCIEDER. 

quarters  horizontally,  at  4,  6,  or  8  inches  apart,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  work,  and  the  spaces  between  are 
loosely  built  up  with  rough  stone  rubble.  A  strong  mortar 
is  then  laid  on  at  both  sides  at  the  same  time,  and  pressed 
completely  through  from  the  opposite  sides,  so  that  the  mor- 
tar meets  and  entirely  embeds  the  stone  rubble  by  filling  up 
all  the  hollows,  and  with  so  much  body  on  the  surface  as  to 
completely  cover  up  and  embed  the  timber  and  laths. 

Walls  may  be  built  of  hollow  bricks  *  which  appear  to 
have  many  advantages  over  those  in  common  use.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Chadwick,  they  are  superior  to  the  common  stone 
and  brick  construction — 

In  preventing  the  passage  of  humidity,  and  being  drier. 

In  preventing  the  passage  of  heat,  and  being  warmer  in 
winter  and  cooler  in  summer. 

In  being  a  security  against  fire. 

In  preventing  the  passage  of  sound. 

In  having  less  unnecessary  material,  and  being  lighter. 

In  being  better  dried,  and  burnt  harder  and  stronger. 

In  being  more  cleanly. 

In   being   cheaper. 

But  however  hollow  bricks  may  answer  for  external  walls, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  applicability  for  inner  par- 
titions. 


*  It  has  been  said  that  walla  formed  of  hollow  bricks  are  found  to  harbor 
insects  ;  but  this  must  be  from  faulty  construction,  as  there  seems  no  reason 
why  a  hollow  wall  of  burnt  clay  should  do  so  more  than  a  hollow  partition 
of  timber  and  plaster. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  build  the  external  walls  of  cottages  and  small 
houses  as  thin  as  4J  inches,  with  hollow  brie"ks.  This  is  absurd,  as  no 
materials,  however  good  or  carefully  put  toq-ether,  can  retain  warmth  and 
prevent  the  passage  of  sound  if  built  so  slightly. 

Mr.  Loudon  is  probably  correct  in  fixing  the  minimum  thickness  of 
external  walls  in  this  country,  for  human  habitations,  at  18  inch*-:  but, 
indeed,  nothing  less  than  a  series  of  experiments  with  walls  of  different 
materials  and  different  thicknesses  can  satisfactorily  determine  these  matters. 
Some  singular  and  unexpected  results  would  probably  arise.  A  little  money 
judiciously  spent  in  making  experiments  of  this  kind  would  be  of  very  great 
Bervice. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  23 

The  form  represented  in  the  annexed  drawing  (which  may 
be  readily  made  with  any  tile  machine)  might  be  tried.  They 
might  be  built  up  dry,  and  cement  in  a  liquid  state  pour- 
ed in  at  the  hollow  spj  ce  _  .r-„w.ww„,,„,  .vvm^ 
between   them  :   quarters 

should    be     inserted     on  3    .:...  '  .:y£y/ty;wmsks&\ 

either  side  of  doorways  in  plLn  of  llo'lo•'  brick  P*rtltiott- 

angles  and  at  distances  of  three  or  four  feet.* 

The  common  quarter  partitions,  if  based  on  a  brick  wall, 
may  be  rendered  nearly  fire-proof  by  brick-nogging  them, 
especially  if  care  be  taken  to  fill  in  between  the  joists,  over 
the  partitions. 

It  lias  lately  been  proposed  to  use  wire-work  (galvanized 
or  japanned  to  prevent  corrosion),  the  wires  being  about  \ 
inch  apart,  in  place  of  lath,  for  ceiliugs  and  partitions  :  this 
plan  would  of  course  greatly  diminish  the  risk  from  fire. 

The  cheapest  and  one  of  the  most  useful  coverings  for 
the  external  walls  of  houses  formed  of  earth,  or  indeed  of 
any  other  material  requiring  to  be  covered,  and  having  pro- 
jecting eaves,  is  rough-cast.  In  the  process  of  executing 
it,  the  wall  is  first  pricked  up  with  a  coat  of  lime  and  hair, 
on  which,  when  tolerably  well  set,  a  second  coat  is  laid,  as 
smooth  as  possible.  As  fast  as  the  workman  finishes  this  sur- 
face, another  follows  him  with  the  rough-cast,  with  which  he 
bespatters  the  fresh  plastering,  and  smoothes  it  with  a  brush, 
o  that  the  whole  dries  together.  The  rough-cast  is  a  com- 
position of  small  gravel,  finely  washed,  mixed  with  pure 
ime  and  water  to  a  state  of  semi-fluid  consistency 

For  inside  work,  coarse  stuff,  or  lime  and  hair,  is  pre- 
pared like  mortar,  with  sand;  but  in  the  mixing,  hair  of  the 
bullock,  obtained  from  the  tanners'  yards,  is  added  to  it, 

*  Their  most  convenient  size  and  least  thickness  must  of  cour.-c  be  a 
matter  for  experiment ;  and  the  author  would  take  this  opportunity  of 
saying  that  he  has  had  no  means  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  this  or  of  any 
of  the  contrivances  mentioned  ;  they  must  be  considered,  therefore,  merely 
us  suggestions. 


24  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

and  distributed  over  the  mass  as  equally  as  possible.  Mere 
laying  or  rendering  is,  however,  the  most  economical  sort  of 
plastering,  and  does  very  well  for  cottages. 

The  walls  may  be  colored  while  the  plaster  is  wet,  on  the 
principle  of  fresco:  the  colors,  by  this  method,  are  fresher 
and  more  brilliant  than  by  any  other,  and  may  be  had  at  a 
very  trifling  expense. 

But  the  commoner  sorts  of  paper  being  now  so  cheap — 
and  with  greater  simplicity  of  pattern,  and  by  using  but 
one  color,  they  might  be  manufactured  still  cheaper — the 
walls  of  every  cottage  living-room,  at  least,  should  be 
covered  with  it,  as  conducing  so  much  to  the  cheerfulness 
and  comfort  of  the  inmates.  * 


FLOORS. 


The  Floors  of  cottages  may  be  formed  in  a  great  variety 
of  ways;  the  principal,  and  among  the  most  economical,  are 
the  following : 


o 


Lime-ash  floors  are  formed  in  several  ways,  according  to 
the  locality.  One  of  the  most  approved  methods  is  the 
following:  the  sand  to  be  used,  after  being  well  washed  and 
freed  from  earth,  is  mixed  with  lime  ashes,  in  the  proportion 
of  two-thirds  sand  to  one-third  ashes,  both  thoroughly  mixed 
together.     It  is  then,  after  being  suffered  to  remain  for  two 


*The  great  beauty  capable  of  being  attained  in  a  paper  with  but  two 
colors  (that  is  a  ground  color  and  a  different  one  for  the  ornament)  has 
been  pointed  out  and  illustrated  by  Mr.  Pugin,  but  apparently  to  little 
purpose  ;  for  the  most  expensive  modern  papers  consist  of  a  set  of  unmean- 
ing patterns,  or  direct  imitations  of  flowers,  animals,  parts  of  buildings,  &c, 
in  as  many  colors  as  the  price  of  the  paper  admits  of,  and  commonly  with- 
out the  least  regard  to  harmony  of  arrangement.  Those  who  are  unable  to 
produce  a  beautiful  and  harmonious  effect  by  the  use  of  two  colors,  are  not 
very  likely  to  succeed  by  the  use  of  ten  or  a  dozen,— the  difficulty  of  pro- 
ducing a  fine  and  harmonious  effect  increasing  in  a  geometrical  ratio  (so  to 
speak)  with  every  additional  color  employed. 


THE    AMERICAN-    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  25 

or  three  day?,  tempered  with  water,  and  laid  on  the  ground, 
or  other  surface  to  be  covered,  to  the  depth  of  about  3 
inches.     In  two  or  fehr  it  becomes  sufficiently  hard  to 

bear  treading-  on,  and  is  then  beaten  all  over  with  a  wooden 
mallet,  till  it  becomes  perfectly  hard,  using-  at  the  same  time 
&  trowel  and  a  little  water  to  render  the  surface  as  smooth 
as  possible.  These  floors  are  very  durable,  having  been 
known  to  last  for  a  number  of  years  without  any  repair. 

Another  and  very  economical  mode  for  ground  floors  is 
to  lay  on  a  hard  and  well  beaten  foundation,  clean  gravel, 
sand,  lime,  and  tar,  forming  a  concrete.,  and  covering  this 
with  an  inch  and  a  half  of  good  cement,  composed  of  one 
part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of  sand,  carefully  floated  and 
troweled.  These  floors  require  to  be  executed  with  great 
care.  * 

In  using  plaster  or  stucco  for  the  upper  floors,  broad 
battens,  or  reeds,  are  laid  on  the  joists  (hoop-iron  in  lengths 
to  stretch  from  wall  to  wall,  would  perhaps  be  found  better): 
the  upper  surface  or  floor  of  plaster  is  then  laid  and  finished 
as  above  described,  and  the  ceiling  completed  between  the 
joists.     If  the   hoop-iron   is   quite  straight   and  flat,  and 

nailed  here  and  there  to  the 


"22T  ,^%^  naneu  nere  aim  mere  10  me 

^^"   -  -—^^^^  joists,  close  together,  no  plas- 

{v/       ter  ceiling  need  be  required, 


M 

„  ,tion  of  plaster  Door.  *&*  Uuder  side  belDS  parted. 

Asphalte  has  been  much  employed  of  late  for  the  flooring 
of  barns  and  outbuildings,  as  well  as  for  pavements,  roofs, 
&c,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much  used  in  cottages, 
for  the  floors  of  which  it  would  seem  to  be  admirably 
adapted,  at  least  for  rooms  on  the  ground  floor.  It  is  laid 
down  in  the  following  manner:  on  a  dry  foundation  a  layer 

*  The  above  modes  of  fori.  I  r  floors  are  given  from  a  variety  of 

methods  practised  in  various  places  :  many  more  might  be  mentioned,  all 
said  to  be  equally  good  and  lasting  ;  but  without  a  trial  there  is  no  way  of 
testing  their  merits,  or  of  judging  which  is  the  best. 

■> 


26  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  gravel  or  small  stones  is  laid,  upon  which  the  asphalte, 
in  a  boiling  state,  is  evenly  spread  to  a  thickness  of  about  2 
inches,  being  at  the  same  time  carefully  pressed  down  and 
smoothed:  very  small  stones  are  then  sifted  over,  and 
pressed  down  on  it.* 

As  one  principal  object  in  the  formation  of  floors  in  cot- 
tages on  the  ground  story  is  to  insure  their  dryness,  f  a 
method  said  to  be  practised  in  Bengal  would  seem  to  be 
very  suitable  in  places  where  pottery  is  cheap.  The  earth 
of  the  room  to  be  floored  is  made  hard  and  level,  and 
unglazed  earthen  pots,  about  a  foot  in  height,  are  then  placed 
with  their  mouths  downwards  and  close  together,  over  the 
whole  surface:  the  vacant  spaces  between  the  pots  are  then 
filled  in  with  pounded  charcoal,  and  over  the  whole  a  floor 
is  formed  of  coarse  brick-dust  and  lime,  well  worked  toge- 
ther. Common  flower-pots  would  answer  the  purpose,  as 
in  the  figure,  but  they  would  be  better  if  made  with  a  ledge, 
a,  a,  and  thereby  offer  a  much  firmer  resistance  to  the  pres- 

*  According  to  Dr.  Ure,  an  asphalt  equal  to  the  natural  kind  is  made 
by  mixing  boiled  coal  tar  with  powdered  chalk  or  bricks. 

t  The  importance  to  health  of  living  in  a  dry  habitation  is  thus  shown  by 
Captain  Murray,  R.  N.,  in  a  letter  to  a  distinguished  medical  practitioner 
in  Scotland.  He  says  that  he  succeeded  in  bringing  back  to  England  the 
whole  of  his  ship's  crew  without  even  one  sick,  after  having  passed  two 
years  among  the  icebergs  of  Labrador,  and  having  gone  from  thence  to  the 
coast  of  Caraccas,  and  afterwards  visiting  the  whole  of  the  West  India 
Islands  and  other  places, — a  severe  trial  to  the  constitutions  of  his  men,  in 
climates  usually  fatal  to  so  many  Europeans.  And  this  he  attributes 
principally  to  the  dryness  of  his  ship,  to  his  having  every  part  of  it  scrub- 
bed daily  with  hot  sand  and  holy-stones,  and  to  the  employment  of  Brodie 
stoves,  which  were  constantly  used  until  every  appearance  of  humidity 
vanished.  He  says,  "  I  am  quite  satisfied  that  a  dry  ship  will  always  be  a 
healthy  one,  in  any  climate."  This,  of  course,  must  apply  equally  to  houses. 
To  insure  dryness,  therefore,  as  much  as  possible  in  places  where  the 
ground  is  low  and  damp,  an  artificial  platform  may  be  formed  with  dry 
brick  or  other  rubbish,  18  inches  or  2  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground, 
and  on  this  the  cottage  should  be  built. 


TIIK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  27 

sure  above  than   the   mere  "mm* 

edge  of  the  pot.    The  space  ' 

between   the  ]>ots   may   of 
course  be  filled  in  with  any 
kind  of  dry  rubbish,  (char- 
coal being "  expensive  J  and  Section  of  a  Plaster  floor' 
the  floor  formed  of  lime-ash,  as  is  above  described. 

A  still  firmer  floor,  and  one  needing  no  cement  covering, 
might  be  formed  by  using  hexagonal  pots  with  a  rim,  as  above 
mentioned,  and  a  groove  and  tongue,  which  would  bind  the 
whole   together,   rendering 


_ 


H 


s 


Section  of  a  floor  formed  of  hollow  pots. 


any  cement  unnecessary. 
On  a  hard  foundation,  the 
under  rim  might,  perhaps, 
be  dispensed  with. 

The  entrance  porch,  lobby,  kitchen,  wash-house,  &c,  may 
be  paved  with  Irick,  on  edge ;  and  in  the  better  sort  of 
cottages,  with  ornamental  tiles,  set  anglewise  or  square. 
These  tiles  may  be  considered  to  make  the  best  sort  of  floors 
for  cottages,  as  they  are  hard  and  nearly  indestructible, 
readily  cleaned,  and  remove  all  danger  from  fire.  To  their 
use  on  the  ground  floor  there  can  be  no  objection  but 
expense,  and  this  would  to  a  certain  extent  be  removed  by 
their  more  general  use.  They  might  also  be  readily  employed 
in  the  upper  floors  by  laying  them  ou  longer  tiles,  as  seen 
in  the  drawing,  and  bedding  them  in  cement,  in  the  same 
way  as  the  common  plain  tile  floors  are  constructed.     If  only 

/_■.■■■ -   these   latter    are  nsed,  two 

courses  would  be  enough  for 

,    ; \/;;\  a  bearing  of  two  feet  from 

Section  of  tile  floor.  centre  to  centre  of  the  joists. 

The  upper  floors  of  cottages  have  lately  been  executed 
of  arched  brickwork  in  mortar.  The  arches  (in  one  case) 
were  seven  feet  span,  and  turned  in  half  a  brick,  except  at 
the   springing  and  the  skew-backs;  they   rose   about   one 


28 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


inch  in  every  foot  in  span;  the  spandrils  were  filled  in 
with  concrete,  and  the  tile  floor  afterwards  laid  with  mor- 
tar. 

Instead  of  brickwork,  arches  formed  of  hollow  pots  have 
been  proposed,  which  are  much  lighter. 

The  annexed  drawing  represents  a  section  of  a  fire-proof 
floor  formed  of  iron  bearers  with  brick  or  hollow  pot 
arches:  one  or  two  rods  might  be  necessary  to  prevent  lateral 


Section  of  fire-proof  floor. 

thrust,  and  to  make  the  floor  perfectly  independent  of  the 
walls,  except  where  the  bearers  rest  on  them.  Either  a 
plaster,  tile,  or  wooden  floor  might  be  laid  on  it. 

The  subjoined  engraving  represents  the  opening  for  the 

fire-place,  with  a  slab  for  the 

hearth  and  trimming  joists; 

and  instead  of  an  arch  in 

brickwork,  as  usual,  a  series 

of    curved    tiles.     This,    it 

will  be  seen,  must  answer  all 

Section  of  tiie-trimmer.  the  uses  which  the  ordinary 

brick  trimmer  is  supposed  to  possess,  would  be  neater,  and 

would  require  much  less  labor  in  the  fixing. 

As  the  firmness  and  stability  of  a  brick  or  stone  wall  de- 
pends so  much  on  its  being  built  without  the  admission  of  any 

other  materia],  such  as  wood 
for  plates,  &c,  and  on  its 
having  as  few  points  as  need 
be  for  the  support  of  the  floors, 
a  great  improvement  would  be 
effected  by  employing  girders, 


"^ 


VI 


m 


I 


■7//M, 

Section  of  girder  floor. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 


2S 


-   -  ,    .  -■    -■v.V./'T] 


Section. 


as  in  the  figure,  from  wall  to 
wall,  and  tenoning  the  joists 
into  them.  This  would  reduce 
the  supporting  points  to  four 
in  Dumber,  and  would  entirely 
obviate  the  necessity  of  wall- 
plat 

The  figures  also  show  the  skirting-boards  or  fillets  with 
the  plastering  brought  down  to  the  floor-boards,  and  car- 
ried through,  thereby  forming  a  perfect  key,  and  at  the 
Bame  time  Leaving  no  hollow  space  for  harboring  vermin  and 
dust. 

In  connection  with  the  floors,  and  fire-proof  construction 
(a  most  important  point  in  cottage  building,)  the  Slairs 
may  lie  mentioned.  As  commonly  constructed,  the  hollow 
space  formed  by  the  tread  and  riser  is  enclosed  by  a  flat 
plaster  covering  or  ceiling, 
having  a  most  unsightly  ap- 
pearance, and  rather  aiding 
than  preventing  their  destruc- 
tion in  case  of  lire. 

The  engraving  shows  the 
bearers  of  wood,  but  the  tread 
and  riser  of  earthenware,  to 
be  formed  in  one  piece,  for 
strength.  Stairs  thus  formed 
would  be  fire-proof,  and  would 
have  a  neat  appearance. 

The  Roofs  of  cottages  may  be  formed  of  a  great  variety 
of  materials,  and  a  number  of  modes  of  construction  have 
been  invented. 

For  the  humbler  kind  of  dwellings,  thatch,  though  falling 
into  disuse,  seems  admirably  adapted;  not  only  as  being 
cheap,  but  as  being  the  warmed  of  all  coverings,  and  less 
liable  to  admit  the  changes 'of  tem]  erature.  The  objection, 
its  liability  to  take  fire,  may  be,  to  a  great  extent  removed 


Section  of  stairs  formed  of  tile. 


f         

i 

Elevation. 


30 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


by  soaking  it  in  a  mixture  of  alum  water  and  size.  It  is  usu-" 
allv  made  of  combed  wheat  straw,  called  reed,  consisting  of 
the  stiff,  unbruised  and  unbroken  stalks  which  have  been  care- 
fully separated  from  the  fodder  straw  by  the  thrasher.  A 
more  durable  thatch  is  formed  of  the  spray  of  trees,  previously 
well-seasoned,  hoop  chips,  and  the  chips  of  coppice  wood. 
The  roofs  may  be  covered  with  the  common  pan  or  plain 

tiles  in  the  usual  manner,  the 
ridges  and  valleys  being  also 
formed  in  tile.  The  ridge  tiles 
should  always  form  a  straight 
line ;  and  a  great  improvement 
in  the  valley  tiles  would  be  the 
making  them  in  long  lengths, 
and  forming  the  necessary  fall 
in  the  thickness  of  the  tile  it- 
self, as  in  the  figures:  no  gutter 
fillets  would  be  required,  and 
it  would  be  perfectly  weather- 
tight,  especially  if  where  a  joint 
occurs  it  were  set  in  cement, 
sections  of  v^iiey  tile.  and  the  j  oiut  formed. 

The  French  roofing  tiles,  are  square  in  form,  and  about  9 
inches  across,  with  a  raised  ledge  on  two  sides.  They  are 
laid  with  or  without  mortar,  diagonally,  so  that  the  rain- 
water never  hangs  to  the  joints,  by  capillary  attraction,  but 
runs  to  the  lower  points,  and  from  thence  to  the  flat  surface 
of  the  next  tile.     These  tiles  are  lighter  than  pantiles. 

A  great  variety  of  ornamental  tiles  (some  of  them  suffi- 
ciently fanciful)  have  of  late  been  maufactured.  A  better 
mode  of  joining  them,  and  one  requiring  no  mortar,  is  shown 

in  the  figure,  as  the  water 
creeping  in  under  the  edge  of 
the  upper  tile  would  be  effect- 
ually stopped  by  the  curved 
inner  rim,  which,  by  its  form, 

Section  of  VI I  111  II1''.  Roof  Tile. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    Ktll.DEK. 


31 


would  prevent  the  water  from  making  its  way  to  the  roof- 
timbers. 

A  very  economical  plan  of  covering  a  roof  with  slate  has 

lately  been  introduced,  as  it  only  takes  half  the  quantity  of 
slates,  requires  no  battens,  and,  if  large  ones  are  used,  a  less 
number  of  rafters.  In  this  plan  of  covering  a  roof,  the 
slates  are  fixed  in  the  same  manner  as  glass  in  a  skylight, 
but  instead  of  being  inserted  in  a  rebate,  a  fillet  of  wood  is 
used,  about  \\  inch  high,  and  1  inch  broad  on  the  top,  and 
|  inch  broad  at  the  bottom:  this  slip  is  nailed  down  the  cen- 
tre of  each  rafter,  and  the  slate  stopped  in  with  putty  in  the 
manner  above  mentioned,  each  slate  having  a  lap  of  from  2 
to  3  inches.  This  mode  of  slating,  if  carefully  performed 
and  kept  well  painted,  will  last  for  a  number  of  years.  One 
objection  to  it  is  its  extremely  slovenly  appearance,  as  not 
only  the  line  formed  by  the  putty  cannot  be  kept  even,  but 
the  paint  is  commonly  found  smeared  half  over  the  slate. 
By  forming  it  as  in  the  fig- 
ure, this  is  remedied:  a  strong 
wooden  fillet  is  nailed  over 
both  slates,  thereby  making  a 
perfectly  secure  joint,  as  well 
as  showing  a  neat  appearance. 
The  fillet  should  be  well  paint- 
ed before  fixing. 

Cast-iron  roofing  has  occasionally  been  employed  for  cot- 
tages, and  corrugated  iron  may  be  used  with  great  advantage, 
as  no  rafters  are  required,  and  it  can  be  used  in  long  lengths 
without  fear  of  bending. 

As  a  slight  improvement  in  these  roofs,  the  method  here 
shown  might  be  adopted.  The  raised  portion  would  not  only 
greatly  strengthen  it,  and 
allow  the  iron  to  be  used  in 
longer  lengths,  but  it  would 
have  a  better  appearance.  Section  of  corrugated  iron. 

The  eaves-gutters,  when  there  are  any,  are   commonly 


Section  of  slate  roof. 


32 


THE     IMERICAX    COTTAGE    DL'II.DER. 


Section  of  tile  eayes-gutter. 


formed  of  cast-iron  or  zinc,*  and  have  a  very  unsightly 
appearance,  from  the  fall  not  allowing  of  their  being  fixed 
parallel  to  the  line  of  eaves,  besides  their  liability  to  sag 
between  the  supports. 

Of  late,  a  wooden  gutter  has  been  used,  with  the  fall 
formed  within  its  own  depth,  thereby  keeping  a  horizontal 

line.  The  joints  should  be  as  few 
as  may  be,  and  where  they  occur 
should  be  carefully  mitred. 
These  wooden  gutters  must  oc- 
casionally be  painted.  The 
same  form  might  be  used  in  tile, 
as  the  figure,  in  as  long  lengths 
as  possible,  and  with  the  joints 
formed  as  above  described  for 
the  valley  tiles. 

The  angles  formed  by  the 
chimney-shaft  and  the  roof, 
as  also  those  formed  by  the 
roof  and  wall,  are,  in  the 
more  expensive  houses,  cov- 
ered with  lead,  which,  besides 
expense,  does  not  harmonize 
in  color  with  a  tile  roof;  and 
in  the  commoner  sort,  are 
merely  jointed  with  mortar 
or  cement — a  very  imperfect 
method,  as  the  weather  speed- 
ily causes  it  to  crumble 
away,  and  it  then  becomes 
necessary  to  renew  it,  and  is 
continually  a  source  of  trou- 

FJevatioa  of  a  chimney  showing      Die  and  expense. 


tile  anjrle  fillets 


By  using  a  tile-fillet  of  the 


*  Sometimes  the  ridges  and  g  tters  of  a  ropf  are  formed  of  a  substance 
called  marine-metal;  so  named,  apparently,  from  its  wavy  appearance  and 
changeable  properties  when  in  such  situation. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BORDER.  33 

shape  indicated  in  the  figure,  and  set  in  cement,  a  perfectly 
secure  and  water-tight  joint  would  be  formed,  having  a 
very  neat  appearance.  It  is  here  represented  in  elevation 
at  a  a,  and  the  figures  c,  d,  e,  show  different  forms  of  tiles.* 


VENTILATION*    AXD    WARMIXG. 

As  economy  in  materials  and  construction  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  all  that  relates  to  cottage  building,  any  mode 
of  Ventilation  which  could  be  proposed  must  be  accomplished 
without  any  extensive  apparatus,  aud  of  so  simple  a  nature 
as  to  be  nearly  or  quite  incapable  of  derangement. 

The  prejudice  in  favor  of  an  open  fire  being  so  great,  it  is 
imperative  in  all  cases  to  provide  for  it;  and  as  it  always 
makes  the  largest  demand  on  the  air  of  a  room,  it  should 
be  separately  supplied,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  independent  of 
doors  and  windows. 

The  best  way  of  doing  this,  at  least  in  cottages,  is  to 
connect  each  fire-place  with  the  outer  air  by  means  of  a  flue- 
tube  at  the  level  of  or  under  the  floor,  opening  out  just  above 
the  ground  Bnrface,  and  admitting  the  air  behind,  or  at  the 
side  of  the  grate.  The  tube  may  be  either  formed  in  the 
brickwork  itself,  of  metal,  or  of  earthenware.  Both  the 
external  opening  and  the  opening  into  the  fire-place  should 
be  closed  by  a  grating. 

This  mode  of  supplying  the  fire  with  air  would  (from 
experiments  made  by  Mr.  Hoskixg)  also  supply  the  room 
as  well  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  and  tempered  air 
for  all  purposes;  the  more  especially  as,  according  to  Dr. 
Abnott,  a  sufficiency  of  fresh  air  always  enters  a  room  by 
the  spaces  left  in  consequence  of  the  imperfect  closing  of 
doors  and  windows,  and  the  occasional  opening  of  the 
door. 

*  Tiles  of  this  form,  made  circular  on  plan,  might  be  used  with  advantage 
for  setting  the  common  chimney-pots,  instead  of  the  unsightly  mass  of 
mortar  usually  cobbled  round  them. 

2* 


34  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

In  most  cases  where  attempts  are  made  to  ventilate 
rooms,  the  fresh  air  is  admitted  by  an  opening  connected 
with  the  outer  air,  and  at  the  level  of  the  floor,  through  the 
skirting, — a  very  imperfect  method,  not  only  as  being  dirty, 
the  air  collecting  dust  as  it  passes,  but  as  creating  a  draught 
along  the  floor  in  its  passage  to  the  opposite  opening.  By 
admitting  air  through  earthenware  tubes,  at  about  seven 
feet  above  the  floor,  or  just  above  a  person's  head,  both 
these  sources  of  annoyance  and  discomfort  would  be  avoided; 
the  clean  earthenware  tube  would  be  free  from  dust,  and  the 
cold  air  would  mix  with  the  warm  air  in  the  room  above 
the  head,  and  could  not  therefore  be  felt  as  a  draught;  and 
as  the  fire  is  supplied  separately,  no  down  current  would  be 
likely  to  take  place.* 

The  vitiated  and  heated  air  in  each  room  may  be  carried 
off  by  the  chimney-flue,  through  an  orifice  just  below  the 
ceiling,  fitted  with  one  of  Dr.  Arnott's  chimney-valves  or 
some  similar  apparatus,  or  even  by  a  simple  opening. 

In  this  chapter  we  have  made  free  use  of  Mr.  Allex  on 
"  Improving  cottages  for  the  laborer." 

*  In  houses  of  two  or  more  stories,  it  would  be  better  to  draw  the  air  for 
the  supply  of  the  fire ;  and  also  for  ventilating  the  rooms,  from  the  staircase, 
the  air  in  it  being  warmer  than  the  external  atmosphere  ;  and  it  would  at 
the  same  time  be  itself  ventilated,  means  being  of  course  provided  in  it  for 
the  admission  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  air. 


THE    AMEKICAX    COTTAUE    BUILDER. 


3ft 


CHAPTER    III. 


TERRA    DEL    F  U  E  G  O    COTTAGE. 

From  Commodore  Wilkes'  report  of  his  exploring  expe- 
dition, we  extract  the  following  account  of  the  Fuegan 
houses:  "The  houses  are  generally  built  near  the  shore  at 
the  head  of  some  small  bay,  in  some  secluded  spot,  and 
sheltered  from  the  prevailing  winds.  They  are  built  of 
boughs  or  small  trees,  stuck  in  the  earth,  and  brought  to- 
gether at  the  top,  where  they  are  firmly  bound  by  bask,  sedge 
and  twigs.  Smaller  branches  are  then  interlaced,  forming 
a  tolerably  compact  wicker-work,  and  on  this,  grass,  and 
turf  and  bark  are  laid,  making  the  hut  quite  warm,  and  im- 
pervious to  the  wind  and  snow,  although  not  quite  so  to  the 
rain.  The  usual  dimensions  of  the  huts  are  seven  or  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  about  four  or  five  feet  in  height.  They 
have  an  oval  hole  in  which  to  creep.  The  fire  is  built  in  a 
small  excavation  in  the  middle  of  the  hut.  The  floor  is  of 
clay,  and  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  wet-kneaded. 
The  usual  accompaniment  of  a  hut  is  a  conical  pile  of  muscle 
and  limpit  shells  opposite  the  door,  nearly  as  large  as  the 
hut  itself." 

We  do  not  presume  that  any  of  our  readers  will  adopt 


36 


THE    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


the  cottage  of  the  Fuegans.  Should  an  American  or  Euro- 
pean be  just  settling  in  a  new  country,  where  he  enjoyed  no 
greater  facilities  for  building  than  does  the  Fuegan,  he 
would  erect  a  house  of  the  same  materials,  as  much  superior 
in  convenience  and  beauty  to  the  Fuegan  hut  as  its 
builder  is  his  superior  in  intelligence  ;  instead  of  taking  the 
twigs  or  branches  of  trees,  he  would  take  the  trees  them- 
selves, cut  them  in  logs  of  even  lengths,  notch  them  at  the 
ends,  and  place  them  upon  each  other — making  a  log-house 
as  shown  in  the  engravinsr.  The  roof  may  be  made  of 
straw,  slabs,  boards,  or  such  other  material  as  shall  be 
convenient.  The  crevices  between  the  logs  may  be  filled 
with  mortar  or  mud.  The  engraving  is  no  fancy  sketch  ; 
there  are  thousands  of  such  log-cabins  in  our  country,  built 
by  hardy  hands,  on  soil  owned  by  their  occupants,  and 
which  possess  every  requisite  for  their  owners'  convenience, 
comfort  and  happiness. 


Log-cabins  are  often  made  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
frame  houses,  by  fastening  perpendicular  strips  on  the  logs 
outside  and  nailing  on  clap-boards,  and  the  inside  may  be 
plastered  or  lath  and  plastered.  Such  a  cabin  was  the 
residence  of  President  Harrison,  at  North  Bend,  Ohio. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTT.UiF.    BUILDER. 


31 


CHAPTER     IV. 


PRAIRIE     COTTAGE. 

This  design  is  for  a  cottage  of  uuburnt  bti  *k,  and  is 

peculiarly  adapted  to  settlers  on  the  prairies  in  the  West- 
ern States. 


to 


I    '    I    i    '    I    ■    I 


20 


30 


AO 


The  above  is  the  ground  plan.     The  dotted  lines  show 
in  what  direction  the  building  should  be  extended. 


38 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CROSS    SECTION. 


SIDE    VIEW. 


JU. 


t    \   r    i   i    r   r    t    t — r — r 


r~^f 


nri  i  riTrrT 

1 — i —  i  Li — t     1      1     r — r         — v 


"TTI 


."■'.'■'.'■'■■■'r 


This  engraving  shows  the  manner  of  laying  the  unburnt 
brick  and  the  foundation. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  39 

The  house  is  twenty-eight  feet  by  eighteen,  forming  one 
room  sixteen  feet  square,  and  two  bed-rooms  eight  feet 
square,  on  the  first  floor.  The  house  has  but  one  door, 
which  is  so  located  as  to  lead  into  the  additional  room, 
should  one  be  built;  a  stairway  is  made  into  the  upper 
story,  (see  cross-section)  by  extending  the  outer  walls  three 
or  four  feet  above  the  joists,  which  rest  on  the  brick.  The 
upper  room  will  admit  of  a  division,  making  a  lodging-room 
over  the  bed-room,  or  it  may  be  used  to  accommodate 
boarders.  The  window-frames  are  made  of  plank  of  the 
thickness  of  the  walls — the  panes  being  eight  by  ten  inches ; 
cost  from  three  to  five  cents  per  light.  Five  windows  are 
needed  for  the  whole  house.  Uuburnt  brick,  although  suit- 
able for  the  walls,  will  not  auswer  for  cellar  work  :  that 
must  be  of  stone.     Nearly  every  kind  of  clay  i3  suitable. 

The  above  ij  a  correct  description  of  some  cottages 
erected  by  Hon  H.  L.  Ellsworth,  late  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  and  as  tie  plan  is  one  of  interest  to  emigrants  and 
settlers  in  the  western  prairie  States,  we  copy  the  following 
from  his  plan  for  chmp  collages: — Select  a  suitable  spot  of 
ground,  as  near  the  place  of  building  as  practicable,  and  let 
a  circle,  ten  feet  or  more  be  described ;  let  the  loam  be 
removed  and  the  clay  dug  up  one  foot  thick;  or,  if  clay  is 
not  found  on  the  spot,  let  it  be  carted  in  to  that  depth. 
Any  ordinary  clay  will  answer.  Tread  this  clay  with  cattle, 
and  add  some  r.traw  cut  six  or  eight  inches  long — using  two 
common  bundles  to  one  hundred  brick.  After  the  clay  is 
tempered  by  working  it,  the  material  is  duly  prepared  for 
the  brick  A  mould  is  then  formed  of  plank,  of  the  size  of 
the  brick  desired.  In  England,  they  are  usually  made 
eighteen  inches  long,  one  foot  wide,  and  nine  inches  thick. 
I  have. found  the  most  convenient  size  to  be  one  foot  long, 
6ix  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  thick.  The  mould  should 
have  a  bottom  not  air-tight,  since  mortar  will  not  fall  when 
a  vacuum  is  produced.  The  clay  is  then  spread  in  the 
moulds  in  the  same  manner  that  brick  moulds  are  ordinarily 


40  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

filled.  A  wire  or  piece  of  iron  hoop  will  answer  very  well 
for  striking  off  the  top.  One  man  will  mould  about  as  fast 
as  another  can  carry  away — two  moulds  being  used  by  him. 
The  bricks  are  placed  upon  the  level  ground,  where  they  are 
suffered  to  dry  for  two  clays,  turning  them  edgewise  the 
second  day;  and  then  packed  in  a  pile,  protected  from  the 
rain,  and  left  ten  or  twelve  clays  to  dry.  During  this  time, 
the  foundation  of  the  building  can  be  prepared.  If  a  cellar 
is  desired,  this  mast  be  formed  of  stone  or  brick,  two  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

For  cheap  buildings  on  the  prairies,  where  stones  are 
scarce,  wooden  sills,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide,  may  be 
laid  on  piles  or  stone.   This  will  form  a  good  superstructure. 

In  all  cases,  before  commencing  the  walls  for  the  first 
story,  it  is  very  desirable,  as  in  walls  of  brick,  to  lay  a  single 
course  of  slate.  This  will  intercept  the  dampness  so  often 
arising  in  the  walls  of  brick  houses.  The  wall  is  laid  by 
placing  the  bricks  lengthwise — thus  making  the  wall  one 
foot  thick.  Ordinary  clay,  such  as  is  used  for  clay  mortar, 
will  suffice  for  laying  up  the  brick  ;  though  a  weak  mortar 
of  sand  and  lime,  where  these  articles  are  cheap,  is  recom- 
mended, as  affording  more  adhesive  material  for  the  plas- 
ter. A  mortar  composed  of  three  parts  clay,  two  parts 
ashes,  and  one  part  sand,  is  very  good  ;  and  this,  when  lime 
is  not  plenty,  answers  for  plastering  the  inside.  For  ceiling, 
however,  where  there  is  walking  over  head,  lime  plaster 
should  be  used.  The  walls  may  safely  be  carried  up  one, 
two,  or  three  stories,  and  the  division  walls  may  be  six 
inches  thick — -just  the  width  of  the  brick.  The  door  and 
window-frames  being  inserted  as  the  walls  proceed,  the 
building  is  soon  raised.  The  roof  may  be  shingles  or  thatch. 
In  either  case,  it  should  project  over  the  sides  of  the  house,  and 
also  over  the  ends,  at  least  two  feet,  to  guard  the  walls  from 
vertiad  rains.  The  exterior  wall  is  plastered  with  good 
lime  mortar,  mixed  with  cattle's  hair,  or  hogs'  bristles, 
(short  ones,)  and  then  with  a  second  coat,  pebble-dashed. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER  41 

The  inside  is  plastered  without  dashing.  The  floors  maybe 
laid  with  oak  boards,  .-lit,  five  or  six  inches  wide,  and  laid 
down  without  jointing-  or  planing,  if  they  are  rubbed  over 
with  a  rough  stone  after  the  rooms  are  finished.  Doors, 
of  a  cheap  and  neat  appearance,  may  be  made  by  taking  two 
boards  of  the  length  or  width  of  the  doors — placing  t 
vertically,  they  will  fill  the  space.  Put  a  wide  batten  on 
the  bottom  and  a  narrow  one  on  the  top,  with  strips  on  the 
sides  and  a  strip  in  the  middle. 

This  door  will  be  a  batten  door,  presenting  two  long 
panels  on  one  side  and  a  smooth  surface  on  the  other.  If 
a  porch  or  veranda  is  wanted,  it  may  be  made  with  cedar 
posts  placed  in  the  ground,  with  shingle  or  thatched  roof. 
Houses  built  in  this  way  are  dry  and  warm  in  winter,  and 
cool  in  summer,  and  furnish  no  retreat  for  vermin. 

They  can  be  made  by  common  laborers  in  a  very  short 
time,  (a  little  carpenter's  work  exceptedj  and  with  a  small 
outlay  for  materials,  exclusive. 

These  walls  have  stood  well  in  Canada,  Europe,  and 
South  America,  effectually  resisting  the  actiou  of  the  frost 
and  rain.  Unburn  t  brick  being  less  porous  than  burnt 
brick,  do  not  absorb  moisture,  and  are  cousecpiently  less 
damp. 

On  the  western  prairies,  where  clay  is  usually  found 
about  fifteen  inches  below  the  surface,  and  where  stone  and 
lime  are  ofteu  both  very  cheap,  these  houses  might  easily  be 
built.  The  article  of  brick  for  chimneys  is  found  to  be 
quite  an  item  of  expense  in  wood  houses.  In  these  mud 
houses  no  bricks  are  needed,  except  for  the  top  of  the  chim- 
neys, the  oven,  and  castings  for  the  fire-place;  though  this 
last  might  well  be  dispensed  with;  and  a  cement  to  put 
arouud  the  chimneys,  or  to  fill  any  other  cracks,  is  easily 
made,  as  before  mentioned,  by  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  sand, 
two  of  ashes,  and  three  of  clay.  This  soon  hardens,  and  will 
resist  the  weather.  Boiled  linseed  oil  may  be  added,  to 
make  the  composition. 


42 


THE    AMERICAN    CuTTAGE    BUILDER. 


For  receipts  for  washing  buildings,  see  the  Chapter  on 
Paints. 

The  following  plan  of  a  chimney-cap  for  insuring  a  draught 
and  preventing  the  wind  from  blowing  down  the  stack,  is 
worth  attention.     It  is  represented  by  these  two  drawings: 


V 

// 

\ 

C 

/ 

c 

a 

c 

J 

V 

AT 

c 

\ 

y 

^ 

PERSPECTIVE    VIEW. 


TOP   VIEW. 


The  perspective  view  shows  a  part  of  the  stack  with  the 
cap  on.  The  top  view  consists  of  four  planes,  c,  c,  c,  c, 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  stack  b,  and  on  each  side  of  the  flue 
a,  and  inclining  downwards  therefrom,  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees:  the  junctions  of  the  planes  c,  being  provided 
with  wings  d,  d,  d,  d. 

A  current  of  wind  impinging  on  one  or  two  of  the  planes 
c,  is  deflected  in  an  upward  direction  by  the  inclination  of 
the  plane  or  planes,  and  its  velocity  gradually  increased  in 
passing  from  the  base  to  the  top  of  the  plane,  by  means  of 
the  wings,  which  narrow  the  space  through  which  the  cur- 
rent has  to  pass.  This  gives  great  force  to  the  current  in 
passing  over  the  top  of  the  flue  in  an  upward  direction,  and 
carries  with  it  downward  currents,  which  otherwise  might 
blow  down  the  stack. 


THE    AilKUKAN    COTTAGE    El'ILDER.  43 


CHAPTER    V. 


THE     FARM     COTTAGE. 


The  main*  body  of  this  cottage  is  in  the  form  of  a 
paralcllogram,  34  feet  long,  including  the  portico,  and  32 
feet  wide,  having  14-foot  posts,  2  feet  of  which  extends 
above  the  attic  floor,  sustaining  a  roof  of  a  16-foot  pitch  with 
the  gable  end  facing  the  south  or  south-west.  The  back  part 
of  the  house,  which  extends  to  the  kitchen,  is  18  by  23  feet, 
including  the  veranda,  with  10-foot  posts,  supporting  a 
roof  of  a  11^-foot  pitch,  with  the  gable  towards  the  north 
or  north-east.  The  kitchen  is  12  by  23  feet,  including  the 
passage  to  the  vault,  with  6-foot  posts,  and  a  lean-to  roof, 
having  a  4-foot  pitch. 

The  whole  building  is  designed  to  be  elevated  on  a  ter- 
race of  mason  work,  3  feet  above  the  common  level  of  the 
ground,  to  be  built  of  wood,  with  the  outer  walls  to  be 
lined  with  bricks. 

The  roofs,  also,  are  designed  to  be  built  of  wood,  covered 
either  with  common  shingles,  or  water-proof  cement. 

On  the  centre  of  the  main  body  of  the  house,  a  false 
chimney-top  is  shown,  which  may  be  formed  of  metal, 
bricks  or  artificial  stone,  for  receiving  the  stove  pipes  from 
the  rooms  below.  Those  who  prefer  fire-places  to  furnaces 
or  stoves,  can  erect  a  chimney  at  each  side  of  the  cottage, 
extending  their  tops  about  16  feet  above  the  eaves.  Be- 
tween the  dining-room  and  kitchen,  there  is  a  chimney  de- 
signed to  communicate  with  the  cooking  range  and  stoves  in 
those  parts  of  the  house. 

This  house  is  designed  to  be  entered  from  the  front  gate 
through  a  portico,  6  feet  wide,  extending  across  the  whole 
width  of  the  house.     The  entry  of  the  kitchen  and  dining- 


44  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

room,  is  also  designed  to  be  passed  into  on  the  easterly  side 
of  the  back  part  of  the  building,  through  a  veranda  3  feet 
wide. 

The  windows  are  all  designed  to  be  of  good  dimensions, 
and  protected  by  wooden  blinds.  Towards  the  top  of  each 
gable  end,  there  is  a  latticed  window  for  ventilation,  which 
may  be  closed  at  pleasure  in  stormy  weather. 

Under  the  entire  floor  of  the  main  body  of  the  house,  a 
cellar  is  inteuded,  with  walls  and  arches  laid  in  cement,  to 
be  entered  by  stairs  from  the  dining-room,  and  by  a  6-foot 
door-way,  on  the  easterly  side,  from  without. 

Beneath  the  kitchen  there  is  also  another  cellar,  designed 
for  storing  wood  or  coal,  entered  from  the  kitchen  through 
a  trap-door,  and  likewise  by  a  passage,  on  the  easterly  side, 
from  out-doors.  If  circumstances  require  it,  a  dairy  or 
milk-cellar,  may  also  be  constructed  under  the  dining-room, 
and  lighted  or  ventilated  by  windows  at  each  side  of  the 
house. 

The  whole  building  is  designed  to  be  protected  from 
lightning  by  a  half-inch  copper  rod,  48  feet  long,  erected  at 
the  gable  end,  near  the  back  parlor  window,  and  secured  in 
its  place  by  means  of  wooden  props,  extending  from  the  roofs. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


45 


GROUND   FLOOR. 


H,  denotes  the  front  hall  or  lobby,  7  feet  wide,  includ- 


ing the  front  stairs. 


46  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

P,  a  double  parlor,  14  by  28  feet,  with  folding  doors 
communicating;  with  the  front  lobbv  or  hall.  Either  or 
both  of  these  parlors  might  be  used  as  sleeping  apartments, 
should  circumstances  require. 

L,  a  room,  communicating  with  the  front  hall,  11  by  12 
feet,  with  a  closet  4  feet  square,  and  may  be  used  for  a  libra- 
ry, office,  living  room  or  nursery,  according  to  the  tastes  or 
wants  of  the  occupant. 

B,  is  a  bed-room,  designed  for  the  head  of  the  family, 
11  by  12  feet,  with  a  closet  4  feet  square,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  library  and  dining-room. 

D,  the  dining-room,  14  by  28  feet,  communicating  with 
the  front  lobby,  H,  the  back  entry  E,  and  the  cellar  at  S. 

K,  the  kitchen,  12  by  20  feet,  communicating  with  the 
dining-room,  by  the  back  entry  E,  and  a  sliding  window  in 
the  pantry  C,  with  the  wood  cellar  at  D,  and  the  back  yard 
by  the  steps  S. 

E,  the  back  entry  4  by  4  feet,  communicating  with  the 
veranda,  kitchen,  the  dining-room  and  the  back  garret  stairs. 

V,  the  vault  5  by  6  feet,  communicating  with  the  veran- 
da, by  a  passage  under  cover,  3  feet  wide. 

C,  C,  C,  closets  or  pantries. 
S,  S,  S,  S,  stairways  or  steps. 

C,  kitchen  and  dining-room  chimney. 

d,  trap-door  covered,  over  the  wood  cellar  stairs. 

/,  the  litrhtnina;  conductor. 

7  O  O 


Till:    AMERICA  dflE    BUILDER. 


47 


1  I  I  I  '  I  '' 


G 

S 


B 


ATTIC    FLOOR. 


A,  A,  denote  two  front  bed-rooms,  12  by  14  feet,  enter- 
ed independent  of  one  another,  from  a  lobby  6  feet  wide 

B,  B,  two  back  bed-rooms,  10  by  14  feet;  entered,  also, 
independently  of  each  other,  from  the  lobby  at  the  head  of 
the  front  stairs. 

G,  a  back  garret,  communicating  with  the  front  part  of 
the  attic,  at  the  steps  S,  and  serves  as  a  passage-way  to  the 
kitchen  and  veranda  l>v  the  back  stairs. 


4?  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

S,  S,  S,  denote  stair-ways  or  steps. 

C,  the  chimney  of  the  dining-room  and  kitchen. 

f,  the  stove  funnel,  communicating  with  the  rooms 
below. 

Between  the  wall-plates  and  bed-rooms,  spaces  are  left 
3  or  4  feet  wide,  which  may  be  found  convenient  for  storage. 

The  design  is  by  B.  J.  Browne,  Esq.  It  is  designed 
not  for  a  city  or  village,  where  the  buildings  are  pre- 
scribed in  their  limits.  The  architectural  style,  in  order  to 
break  the  monotony  often  observable  in  our  larger  towns, 
should  be  displayed  in  single  and  double  cottages,  neat  and 
appropriate  out-buildings,  factories,  and  other  public  build- 
ings. 

There  are  a  variety  of  considerations  with  respect  to 
Farm  Cottages.  In  selecting  the  locations,  care  should  be 
taken  to  get  a  good  foundation.  Stone  or  gravel  is 
preferable. 

The  house  should  be  near  the  barn  and  out-buildings, 
for  reasons  of  convenience  and  security. 

The  drainage  of  the  buildings  is  an  important  item. 
The  drain  should  decline  at  least  two  feet  in  every  one 
hundred. 

Water  may  be  taken  from  wells,  or  collected  from  the 
roof.  A  roof  containing  100  square  feet,  will  ordinarily 
catch  4,000  gallons  of  water  per  year 

It  is  generally  considered  the  best  to  have  cottages  front 
the  south,  the  west,  or  the  south-west,  especially  in  cold 
nimates. 

In  cold  climates,  prominence  .should  be  given  to  the 
chimney,top,  both  as  to  its  size  and  its  mode  of  construction. 
It  is  suggestive  of  comfort,  sociality,  and  good  cheer. 

At  the  tropics,  instead  of  the  chimney,  we  need  the 
veranda— the  shade.  The  Architect  furnishes  both  :  but 
change  their  locations,  and  each  would  be  considered  im- 
proper. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  J 9 


CHAPTER    VI. 


THE     VILLAGE     COTTAGE. 

This  design,  by  Jackson,  represents  a  style  of  cottages 
much  recommended  and  adopted  in  England.  It  should  be 
built  of  stone,  the  walls  about  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  is 
suitable  for  mechanics.  It  consists  of  a  living-room,  fifteen 
feet  by  thirteen  feet,  having  a  south  and  western  aspect. 
This  room  is  entered  by  a  porch  on  the  east  side.  Behind 
the  room  is  the  kitchen,  nineteen  feet  by  thirteen  feet,  part 
of  the  space  being  appropriated  to  the  stair-case,  affording 
access  to  the  bed-rooms,  and  the  under  side  of  the  stair-case, 
leaving  space  for  a  small  pantry.  A  lean-to  building  against 
the  kitchen,  is  divided  into  a  wash-house  or  scullery,  and 
fitted  up  with  the  usual  conveniences,  and  a  tool-house  and 
the  requisite  out-offices.  The  scullery  door  opens  into  a 
back  yard. 

The  thickness  of  the  stone  walling  should  be  from  one  to 
two  feet,  and  the  masonry,  simple  in  its  kind,  receives  its 
character  from  the  coped  gables  and  chamfered  mullions  of 
the  windows  and  jambs  of  external  doors.  The  ancient 
chimney-shaft  has  a  base  formed  into  two  water-tables, 
above  which  rises  the  octangular  shaft,  springing  from  a 
'square  pedestal,  and  terminated  by  a  single  moulded  and 
embattled  cornice,  with  a  neck-mould  twelve  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  the  chimney  seven  feet  high  from  the  water- 
table. 

The  various  parts  of  this  cottage  are  fully  described  in 
Chapter  II. 


6C  THE    AMERICAN-    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    VII 


ITALIAN  COTTAGE. 


This  design  is  for  a  position  visible  from  a  considerable 
distance,  and  commanding-  from  its  site  an  extensive  view. 
The  Italian  style  being  selected,  it  is  desirable  to  make  the 
tower  useful,  as  well  as  an  ornamental  appendage,  and  there- 
fore the  ground  plan  of  the  tower  is  used  as  a  porch,  and  its 
second  story  as  a  bed-room.  A  door  on  the  side,  opens  in  the 
living-room.  The  tower  is  eight  feet  and  a  half  high.  The 
door  is  thus  placed  to  avoid  a  direct  draught  into  the  room, 
and  the  square  space  between  it  and  the  back  wall  of  the 
porch,  would  be  occupied  by  a  bench,  affording  a  pleasant  seat 
for  the  family  of  the  occupant,  during  fine  weather.  Jackson 
proposes  that  the  living-room  be  fourteen  by  twelve  feet, 
Having  on  one  side  a  narrow  stair-case,  affording  access  to 
the  bed-rooms.  Connected  with  this  room,  is  the  kitchen 
or  wash-house,  twelve  feet  square,  fitted  up  with  a  cottage 
range,  oven,  sink  and  pump.  Attached  as  a  lean-to,  is  the 
pantry,  with  the  usual  outer-offices. 

Yines  should  be  cultivated  and  allowed  to  run  up  and 
around  the  tower.  The  drainage  would  be  taken  from  the 
kitchen  out-door  way,  to  the  nearest  point  at  which  it 
could  be  emptied  with  a  good  fall.  A  house  in  this  style, 
built  cheaply  of  wood,  should  not  cost  over  $450,  while,  if 
made  of  stone  in  a  substantial  manner,  it  would  cost  $900. 
The  cottage  is  especially  adapted  for  a  lodge,  in  which  case 
the  tower  might  be  used  as  an  observatory,  or  it  may  be 
occupied  by  a  small  family,  when  the  tower  would  be  used 
as  a  bed-room.  The  rural  beauty  of  the  house  would  be 
greatly  increased  by  the  arrangement  of  the  trees,  foliage. 
end  irrouuds  about  it. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  ."J 


CHAPTER     VIII. 


THATCHED     COTTAGE. 


In  many  situations,  Thatched  Cottages  form  a  distinguish- 
ing feature  iu  the  landscape;  and,  says  Jackson,  combine 
essentially  with  the  scenery  of  the  country.  This  style  is 
well  worthy  of  occasional  use,  and  very  suitable  for  lodges. 
Straw  thatching  is  a  covering  easily  provided  in  any  agri- 
cultural vicinity,  and  is  capable  of  being  repaired  from  time 
to  time,  at  a  trifling  cost:  but  it  is  easily  accessible  to  ver- 
min, and,  therefore  objectionable,  for  the  better  class  of  cot- 
tages. Reed,  being  more  impervious  to  their  attacks,  is  the 
material  to  be  recommended — with  it  closeness  of  texture 
and  harmony  of  view,  aided  by  the  neatness  of  effect  which 
can  be  given  to  it  by  experienced  thatchers.  Creeping- 
plants  spreading  over  the  surface  of  the  roof,  greatly  con- 
tribute to  the  general  effect;  and  a  cottage  in  this  style, 
derives  great  assistance,  in  its  picturesque  character,  from 
the  judicious  aid  of  the  landscape  gardener. 

Thatched  Cottages  are  less  frequent  in  this  country  than 
iu  Europe,  in  consequence  of  the  cheapness  of  better  mate- 
rial, and  the  ability  of  the  cottager  to  get  it. 

Mr.  Jackson  designed  the  "Thatched  Cottage"  for 
England.  Although  we  feel  bound  to  give  a  specimen  of  a 
Thatched  Cottage,  in  fulfilment  of  our  design,  still,  we  must 
record  our  pride  that  our  people  generally,  can  afford  better 
houses. 

The  design  does  not  aspire  to  a  high  degree  of  Archi- 
tectural beauty. 

The  design  is  an  adaptation  of  this  material  to  a  lodge, 
nnd  the  roof  is  extended  sufficiently  to  answer  the  purposes 


52  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  a  veranda,  on  the  south,  or  principal  front  of  the 
dwelling.  The  entrance,  on  the  west  side,  is  a  porch,  seven 
feet  by  five  feet,  opening  into  a  living-room,  fifteen  feet  by 
thirteen  feet,  exclusive  of  a  bay  window,  and  having  on  its 
east  side  a  kitchen,  thirteen  by  eleven  feet,  fitted  with  oven 
and  sink.  Two  bed-rooms  are  obtained  over  the  kitchen 
and  living-room.  Attached  to  the  kitchen,  is  a  wing  build- 
ing comprising  tool-house  and  the  usual  out-buildings.  The 
veranda  gives  access,  under  cover,  to  these  buildings,  in 
addition  to  its  importance  as  an  ornamental  feature.  In 
selecting  the  uprights  to  support  this  veranda,  much  care 
should  be  exercised,  and  a  degree  of  artistical  judgment 
employed.  They  should  be  neither  too  regular  in  form,  nor 
on  the  contrary,  too  distorted.  If  any  arms,  or  branches, 
are  retained  at  the  upper  extremity,  to  give  the  semblance 
of  an  arch,  the  same  observations  will  apply;  but  a  practiced 
artist's  eye  can  only  succeed  in  this  point.  Oak  unbarked 
posts,  having  lead  at  the  head  and  foot,  should  be  the  ma- 
terial selected.  Considerable  drip  will  fall  from  the  eaves, 
and  the  buildiug  must  be  surrounded  with  a  channel  drain, 
under  this  drip. 

The  cost  will  vary  from  $400  to  $900. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 


CHAPTER     IX 


COTTAGE  OF   TILE  SOCIETY  FOR  BIPROVIXCx   THE 
CONDITION  OF  THE  POOR. 

This  design  provides  a  living-room  fourteen-six  by  fifteen 
feet,  and  eight  feet  high,  with  a  window  on  the  south  side,  a 
chimney  on  the  east,  and  the  door  into  the  room  at  the 
north-west  angle — thus  affording  the  utmost  possible  space 
for  the  little  furniture  which  the  tenant  may  have  to  arrange 
in  his  "best  room."  A  lobby  three  and  a  half  feet  square 
protects  the  entrance  to  this  room  from  the  draughts  of  the 
external  air,  and  this  lobby  forms  the  outer  entrance,  giving 
also  access  to  the  pantry,  three  and  a  half  feet  wide,  running 
north-ward  ;  and  a  scullery,  eight  feet  square,  fitted  up  with 
sink,  pump,  copper,  and  if  requisite,  an  oven  of  small  dimen 
sions.  The  first  step  of  the  stairs  commences  at  the  north- 
ern jamb  of  the  living-room  chimney,  and  under  the  stairs 
adjacent,  the  entrance  is  obtained  to  a  coal  or  wood  closet 
The  scullery  is  made  one  foot  lower  than  the  living-room, 
and  by  this  means  access  is  obtained  off  the  stairs  to  a  room 
over,  thus  providing  three  bed-rooms,  each  with  a  chimney 

All  the  rain  water  is  collected  from  the  roofs  into  a  water 
bntt  placed  at  the  northern  extremity  of  each  pantry.  A 
small  yard  is  formed  on  this  side,  in  which  a  well  is  sunk  for 
the  use  of  the  pair  of  cottages,  and  at  the  extremity  of  this 
yard  the  dust-holes,  &c,  are  placed,  thus  keeping  the  house 
clear  from  all  contamination  on  the  score  of  drainage.  The 
garden  is  to  occupy  the  south  front  of  the  cottage,  and  the 
aid  or  the  cottager  would  of  course  be  expected  in  training 
honeysuckle  or  whatever  he  most  desired  along  it-  frontage 
The  cost  of  the  pair  would  vary  from  $800  to  $1,000. 


54  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    X. 


WARMING    AND    VENTILATION. 

The  atmosphere  is  composed  essentially  of  two  gases, 
in  a  state  of  mechanical  mixture,  named  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen. In  its  pure  state,  oxygen  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
energetic  properties  in  promoting  combustion,  decomposi- 
tion, and  various  chemical  changes.  A  taper,  with  a  mere 
spark  of  fire  in  the  wick,  will,  when  plunged  into  oxygen, 
burst  into  flame  and  burn  brilliantly;  iron  wire,  made  red- 
hot  at  one  extremity,  will  burn  away  with  the  greatest  ease 
iu  this  gas.  An  animal  in  an  atmosphere  of  pure  oxygen, 
suffers  from  excess  of  vital  action  ;  its  pulses  throb  with  in- 
creased rapidity  and  vigor,  the  vital  spark,  as  it  were, 
bursts  into  flame,  and  destroys  the  animal.  Nitrogen  (or, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  azoie,)  is  as  inert  in  its  properties 
as  oxygen  is  active.  It  supports  neither  life  nor  combus- 
tion, and  its  principal  use  in  the  atmosphere  seems  to  be  to 
dilate  the  oxygen,  and  to  subdue  the  wonderful  energy  of 
this  vigorous  element  to  the  endless  number  of  useful  pur- 
poses which  it  has  to  perform  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
The  proportions  in  which  these  two  gaseous  bodies  are 
mingled,  are  very  unequal  ;  every  atom  or  particle  of 
oxygen  in  the  atmosphere  is  accompanied  by  four  atoms  or 
particles  of  nitrogen ;.  or,  in  other  words,  if  we  take  a  mea- 
sure of  any  capacity,  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  and  de- 
cant it  into  four  parts  of  nitrogen  and  one  part  of  oxygen, 
we  get  a  mixture  identical  in  all  respects  with  pure  atmos- 
pheric air. 

In  the  great  chemical  operations  of  nature,  which  are  de- 
pendent on  the  atmosphere,  oxygen  passes  through  various 
mutations,  and  enters  into  new  combinations,  which  form 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGK    BUILDER.  55 

the  bases  of  grand  and  wonderful  contrivances.  Some  of 
the  most  important  of  these  operations  depend  on  the  pro- 
cess of  combustion,  of  which  the  following  is  a  simple  illus- 
tration :  A  piece  of  wax  taper,  fixed  in  the  centre  of  a 
cork,  is  lighted  and  floated  on  the  surface  of  water  in  a 
shallow  dish  ;  if  this  be  enclosed  within  a  glass  bell,  the 
mouth  of  which  dips  into  the  water  and  rests  on  the  dish, 
the  air  of  the  glass  will  be  cut  off  from  any  communication 
with  the  external  atmosphere.  The  flame  of  the  vapor  will 
immediately  diminish,  and  in  a  few  seconds  be  extinguished. 
On  examining  the  air  left  in  the  glass,  it  will  be  fouud  in- 
capable of  supporting  animal  life  or  combustion;  four-fifths 
of  the  original  bulk  of  air  is  still  nitrogen,  and  this  is 
apparently  unchanged;  the  remaining  fifth  is  no  longer 
oxygen,  but  a  compound  of  oxygen  with  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  the  flame — oxygen  and  carbon  producing  car- 
bonic acid,  and  oxygen  and  hydrogen  producing  water, 
which,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  condenses  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  glass. 

Now,  the  product  of  combustion  called  carbonic  acid, 
is  incapable  of  supporting  life  and  combustion,  and  thus 
resembles  nitrogen.  But  there  are  these  differences  between 
■them;  nitrogen  is  a  little  lighter  than  its  own  bulk  of  at- 
mospheric air — carbonic  acid  is  considerably  heavier;  nitro- 
gen is  an  elementary  or  simple  substance,  that  is,  one  which 
has  never  yet  been  resolved  into  two  or  more  dissimilar 
parts — carbonic  acid,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  compound  cup- 
able  of  being  separated  or  decomposed  into  carbon  or  char- 
coal and  oxygen.  Moreover,  pure  nitrogen,  shaken  up  in 
a  bottle,  with  a  little  lime  water,  produces  no  effect;  car- 
bonic acid  renders  it  turbid,  by  combining  with  the  lime 
and  rendering  it  insoluble;  nitrogen  is  scarcely  absorbed  by 
water,  but  water  absorbs  its  own  volume  of  carbonic  acid; 
nitrogen  has  no  taste  or  smell — carbonic  acid  has  a  sharp 
taste  and  an  acid  reaction.  Hence  it  will  be  seen,  that 
these  two  bodies,  which  have  the  common  property  of  ex- 


56  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BLILDER. 

tinguishing  life  and  preventing  combustion,  aiv  marked  by 
characteristic  differences. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  enormous  demands  on 
the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  for  supporting  combustion, 
from  the  fact,  that  a  single  iron  furnace  burns  or  consumes, 
in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  not  less  than  three  hun- 
dred and  ten  tons  weight  of  atmospheric  air,  or  as  much  as 
would  be  required  for  the  respiration  of  two  hundred  thou- 
sand human  beings  within  the  same  period. 

Carbon,  which  forms  the  solid  basis  of  most  fuel,  and  in 
a  minutely-divided  state  renders  flame  luminous,  is  a  simple 
substance,  and  exists  in  nature  under  a  variety  of  forms. 
Its  purest  form  is  the  diamond,  as  is  proved  by  the  forma- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  only,  when  it  is  burnt  in  pure  oxygen. 
Charcoal  and  Coke  are  other  well-known  forms  of  carbon, 
the  one  obtained  from  wood,  the  other  from  coal;  coal  is  a 
compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  with 
a  mineral  and  earthy  residue.  Wax,  tallow,  &c,  are  com- 
pounds of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

Hydrogen,  which  is  the  source  of  all  common  flame,  is 
the  lightest  substance  that  has  ever  been  weighed  :  it  is 
more  than  fourteen  times  lighter  than  its  own  bulk  of  atmos- 
pheric, at  the  same  temperature;  it  neither  supports  life  nor 
combustion.  A  lighted  taper,  plunged  into  it,  is  extin- 
guished, but  the  hydrogen  itself  takes  fire  and  burns  at  the 
mouth  of  the  jar,  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air,  with  which  it  unites  and  forms  water.  One  volume 
of  oxygen  combines  with  two  of  hydrogen  to  form  water; 
or  by  weight,  one  grain  of  hydrogen  unites  with  eight  grains 
of  oxygen;  and  as  the  hydrogen  is  sixteen  times  lighter 
than  its  own  bulk,  of  oxygen,  it  follows  that  one  grain  of 
hydrogen  will  occupy  twice  the  bulk  of  eight  grains  of  oxygen. 
Pure  hydrogen  burns  with  scarcely  any  light ;  in  the  flame 
of  our  lamps,  candles,  gas-lights,  &c,  the  minutely-divided 
carbon,  in  rising  up  through  the  flame,  becomes  white-hot, 
and  presents  innumerable  luminous  points;  at  the  exterior 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  5T 

of  the  flame  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  seizes  the  minutes 
atoms  of  carbon  as  they  escape,  and  by  combining  with  them, 
forms  invisible  carbonic  acid.  A  cold  substance,  such  as  a 
piece  of  glass  or  metal,  held  in  a  flame  lor  a  moment,  will 
condense  a  portion  of  the  carbon  in  a  minutely-divided  state. 
If  a  lamp  have  a  deficient  supply,  it  will  smoke,  that  is,  a 
portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  flame  will  escape  without  being 
burned.  Lamp-black  is  formed  by  burning  oil  in  a  close 
chamber  with  a  deficient  supply  of  air. 

Hydrogen  unites  with  nitrogen  to  form  ammonia,  three 
volumes  of  hydrogen  being  required  to  one  of  nitrogen. 
This  substance  is  pungent  and  acrid,  but  when  diluted  with 
air,  is  an  agreeable  stimulant.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
which,  at  the  temperature  50°,  takes  up  670  times  its  bulk 
of  the  gas.  Ammonia  is  an  alkali,  and  combines  readily 
with  acids,  producing  an  important  class  of  ammoniacal 
salts. 

^Nitrogen  and  oxygen  combine  to  form  nitric  acid,  one 
part  of  nitrogen  uniting  with  five  parts  of  oxygen.  oSot 
only  are  these  numbers  different  from  those  which  represent 
the  composition  of  the  atmosphere,  but  the  mode  of  combi- 
nation is  different.  The  oxygen  and  nitrogen  of  the  atmos- 
phere are  mixed  mechanically,  just  as  a  portion  of  fine  sand 
diffused  through  water,  may  he  said  to  mix  with  it  without 
combining.  In  either  case,  the  bodies  preserve  their  own 
peculiar  properties ;  or  the  properties  of  the  compound 
form  a  mean  1  jet  ween  those  of  its  component  elements.  But 
in  a  chemical  combination  between  two  bodies,  a  third  body 
is  formed,  whose  properties  need  not,  and  seldom  do  resemble 
those  of  the  component  elements.  Thus  sulphur  and  oxygen 
combine  chemically  to  produce  sulphurous  or  sulphuric  acid — 
substances  whose  properties  are  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  sulphur  and  oxygen  which  produce  them;  the  sulphur- 
ous has  also  very  different  properties  from  the  sulphuric. 
So  with  nitric  acid ;  this  compound  has  none  of  the  proper- 
ties of  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere,  but  a  new  set 

3* 


58  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  properties  peculiar  to  itself.  This  powerful  acid  may  be 
formed  artificially  in  various  ways,  but  only  one  need  here 
be  mentioned.  By  passing  a  succession  of  electric  sparks 
through  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  this  acid  is 
formed;  so  also  during  a  thunder  storm,  the  lightning 
striking  through  vast  masses  of  atmospheric  air,  produces 
nitric  acid,  which,  combining  with  ammoniac,  also  formed  in 
the  atmosphere,  descends  with  the  rain  upon  the  earth  in 
the  form  of  nitrate  of  ammonia. 

Now,  the  object  for  which  these  details  have  oeen  brought 
forward,  is  to  enable  the  reader  to  take  an  enlarged  view  of 
the  process  of  combustion,  for  this,  in  fact,  constitutes  the 
chief  means  by  which  which  nature  accomplishes  her  annual 
cycle.  An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  homely  processes  of 
warming  and  ventilation  depends  upon  a  clear  insight  into 
the  principles  of  combustion,  and  it  is  only  an  oft-repeated 
truism,  that  our  useful  arts  become  more  efficient  in  practice, 
more  economical  and  more  conductive  to  our  happiness,  in 
proportion  to  our  knowledge  of  the  principles  upon  which 
they  depend.  Now,  according  to  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  term,  combustion  is  the  rapid  union  of  a  combusti- 
ble with  a  supporter  of  combustion  whereby  new  com- 
pounds are  formed,  heat  and  light  accompanying  the  forma- 
tion. Thus,  a  piece  of  irou  wire  or  of  phosphorus  ignited 
and  plunged  into  a  jar  of  oxygen  gas,  burns  vividly,  the 
iron  falling  in  molten  drops  amid  showers  of  scintillations, 
and  the  phosphorus  emitting  a  vivid  flood  of  painful  light. 
By  this  process,  the  oxygen  and  the  iron  unite  to  form  a  new 
substance — oxyde  of  iron;  the  oxygen  and  the  phosphorus 
also  form  a  new  sustance,  phosphorous  acid.  If,  however, 
the  iron  be  exposed  long  enough  to  the  atmosphere,  the 
oxygen  will  combine  with  it  in  precisely  the  same  manner, 
and  form  oxyde  of  iron.  Months  or  even  years  may  be 
required  for  the  completion  of  the  process  which  in  the  jar 
of  oxygen  was  accomplished  in  a  few  seconds  ;  but  the 
result  is  the  same.     The  same  amount  of  heat  is  evolved  by 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  59 

the  combination  of  the  oxygen  and  the  iron  during  the  slow 
process  of  rusting,  as  in  the  rapid  process  of  burning.  So 
also  wirh  the  phosphorus.  A  piece  of  this  substance 
exposed  to  the  air  combines  with  the  same  amount  of 
oxygen,  and  evolves  precisely  as  much  heat  during  the  time 
that  it  slowly  wastes  away,  and  produces  the  same  weight 
of  acid  as  it  would  do  if  burnt  in  a  jar  of  oxygen. 

Now,  it  must  be  evident,  that  if  a  process,  rapidly 
brought  about  in  oue  case  and  slowly  in  another,  produce 
the  same  results,  we  do  not  add  to  our  knowledge  by  as- 
sociating different  names  and  different  trains  of  thought 
with  the  one  as  compared  with  the  other;  on  the  contrary, 
we  disembarrass  the  subject  by  considering  the  processes  as 
identical;  whether  the  combustion  be  rapid  or  slow,  it  is 
still  combustion.  Undoubtedly  there  are  cases  where  slow 
combustion  is  not  possible.  A  piece  of  coal  and  the  oxygen 
necessary  to  its  combustion  may  remain  in  contact  for  cen- 
turies without  undergoing  any  change;  but  the  moment  a 
spark  of  fire  is  introduced,  they  begin  to  combine  and  dis- 
appear, with  all  the  more  obvious  phenomena  of  combustion. 
In  such  a  case,  all  we  can  say  is,  that  a  high  temperature 
is  necessary  for  the  combination;  but  this  case  does  not 
disturb  the  view  we  are  endeavoring  to  impress  upon  the 
reader,  that  combustion  may  be  a  very  slow  process  as  well 
as  a  very  rapid  one. 

Let  us  take  another  case  of  combustion.  If  a  portion 
of  the  solid  food  of  animals  be  placed  in  a  red-hot  platinum 
crucible,  it  will  burn  away;  its  carbon  will  unite  with  oxy- 
geu  from  the  air,  and  form  carbonic  acid;  its  hydrogen 
will  unite  with  oxygen  from  the  air  and  form  water;  its 
nitrogen  may  escape  free,  or  it  may  unite  with  a  portion  of 
its  hydrogen,  and  form  ammonia;  and  in  this  way  all  the 
gaseous  volatile  products  will  be  expelled  from  the  crucible, 
leaving  behind  only  a  small  portion  of  ash,  which  consists  of 
salts,  some  of  which  are  soluble  in  water,  and  others  iusol 
uble  in  that  Quid. 


60  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

Now,  in  a  chemical  point  of  view,  the  living  animal 
frame  is  a  real  apparatus  for  combustion  ;  it  is  a  vital 
furnace,  in  which  the  carbon  supplied  by  the  fuel  which 
wc  call  fuel,  is  burnt,  and,  combining  with  oxygen,  es- 
capes by  the  lungs  and  the  skin  into  the  atmosphere,  under 
the  form  of  carbonic  acid.  In  this  apparatus,  also,  the 
hydrogen  of  food  is  burnt,  and  uniting  with  oxygen,  escapes 
as  aqueous  vapor  ;  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  as  taken  into  the 
lungs,  is  again  exhaled  by  respiration,  but  the  nitrogen  and 
soluble  mineral  portions  of  the  food  are  rejected  in  an 
insoluble  or  soluble  form. 

Every  portion  of  food  which  a  person  of  mature  age 
!.  kes  into  his  system,  is  thus  dispersed  from  day  to  day. 
In  infancy  and  youth,  a  portion  is  retained  to  form  mate- 
rials for  Growth  :  in  old  age,  the  individual  loses  more  than 
he  receives,  and  consequently,  wastes  slowly  away.  But  in 
each  case,  the  natural  process  is  similar  to  the  artificial  one 
represented  in  the  heated  platinum  crucible.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  resist  the  evidence  that  the  combustion  of  food, 
whether  in  the  animal  or  in  the  crucible,  is  one  and  the 
same  process  ;  the  only  difference  being,  that  in  the  crucible 
the  heat  is  intense  and  the  process  comparatively  slow. 
That  which  is  called  animal  heat  (98°  Fah.)  is  in  fact  the 
heat  of  combustion,  and  the  object  of  the  domestic  process 
of  warminG"  and  ventilation  is  to  enable  the  animal  to  main 
tain  this  heat,  and  to  convey  away  the  gaseous  products  of 
combustion  as  fast  as  they  are  formed.  The  soluble  and  in- 
soluble products  of  combustion  are  conveyed  away  by  other 
natural  means  ;  and  it  will  be  our  duty,  hereafter,  to  show 
that  it  is  as  unwise  to  neglect  the  means  for  clearing  off  our 
gaseous  excrements,  as  it  would  be  insane  and  unnatural  to 
attempt  to  retain  those  of  another  kind. 

Another  proof  of  the  identity  of  the  two  processes  is 
that  nature  disposes  of  the  products  of  combustion  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  manner,  whether  derived  from  ordinary 
combustion  or  animal  respiration.     The  vegetable  kingdom 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTA'JE    BUILDEK  61 

is  the  grand  laboratory  wherein  these  products  of  combus- 
tion are  decomposed  a,nd  elaborated  iuto  new  combustion. 
Plants  inhale  or  absorb  carbonic  acid,  decompose  it,  retain 
the  carbon  as  materials  for  growth,  and  return  the  oxygen 
bark  to  the  atmosphere;  plants  absorb  water  or  aqueous 
vapor,  decompose  it,  retain  its  hydrogen,  aid  also  return 
the  oxygen  back  to  the  atmosphere;  plants  sometimes  take 
nitrogen  directly  from  the  air,  and  also  sometimes  indirectly 
from  the  oxide  of  ammonium  or  from  nitric  acid.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  chemical  function  of  plants  is  directly 
the  reverse  of  that  of  animals— the  animal  kingdom  consti- 
tuting an  immense  apparatus  for  combustion — the  vegetable 
kingdom  an  equally  grand  apparatus  for  reduction;  in  which 
reduced  carbonic  acid  yields  carbon,  reduced  water  its 
hydrogen,  and  in  which  also  reduced  oxide  of  ammonium 
and  nitric  acid  yield  their  ammonium  or  their  nitrogen. 
The  organic  matter  which  constitute  the  food  of  animals 
is  destroyed  by  them,  and  rendered  for  the  most  part  inor- 
ganic: this,  in  its  turn,  becomes  the  aliment  of  plants,  the 
materials  with  which  plants  elaborate  organic  compound', 
the  atmosphere  serving  as  the  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  two  kingdoms.      Organic  vegetable  substances 

3,  ready-formed,  into  herbivorous  animals,  which  destroy 
a  portion  of  them,  and  appropriate  the  remainder  as  mate- 
rials for  growth.  From  herbivorous  animals,  these  organic 
matters  pass,  ready-formed,  into  the  carnivorous,  who  de- 
stroy or  retain  some  of  them,  according  to  their  wants. 
The  herbivorous  animals  are  slaughtered  for  the  use  of  the 
carniverous,  and  when  these,  in  their  turn,  cease  to  live, 
they  decompose,  and  the  atmosphere  again  takes  up,  in 
various  ways,  and  by  various  processes,  the  materials  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

The  great  stimulus  which  gives  motion  to  the  wonderful 
machinery  of  the  vegetable  world,  is  solar  light.  Under  its 
influence,  the  carbonic  acid  yields  its  carbon,  the  water  its 
hydrogen,  the  ammonia  its  nitrogen.     It  is  not  for  the  pur- 


62  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    tftlLDER. 

pose  of  purifying  the  air  that  plants  are  especially  necessary 
to  animals.  Their  great  use  is  to  furnish  a  never-failing 
supply  of  organic  matter,  ready-prepared  for  assimilation  \ 
in  short,  with  fuel,  which  animals  can  burn  for  their  own 
use.  The  purification  of  the  air  by  vegetation  is  a  remote 
service  ;  the  other  service  is  so  immediate,  that  if  it  were  to 
fail  us  during  a  single  year,  the  earth  would  be  depopulated 
The  mean  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere,  is 
scarcely  one  volume  in  2,000,  which  is  a  surprisingly  small 
quantity,  when  we  consider  how  numerous  and  productive 
are  the  sources  of  this  gas.  Volcanoes,  fires,  animals,  fermen- 
tation and  decay,  are  constantly  producing  it.  Nor  will  the 
quantity  given  off  by  a  single  individual  appear  insignificant, 
when  it  is  stated  that  Sir  Hujiprhey  Davy  found  that  he 
required  for  the  purposes  of  respiration,  during  the  24  hours, 
45,504  cubic  inches  of  oxygen,  weighing  15,151  grains;  and 
producing  31,680  cubic  inches  of  carbonic  acid,  weighing 
11,811,  grains  or  4,853  grains  of  carbon.  These  numbers 
vary  with  different  individuals,  and  also  in  the  same  individu- 
al at  different  periods  of  the  day.  According  to  Dr.  Prout, 
the  maximum  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  given  off  about 
noon,  up  to  which  period  it  gradually  increases  from  the 
beginning  of  twilight;  and  after  noon,  it  as  gradually  dimi- 
nishes until  evening,  and  is  at  its  minimum  during  the 
night. 

It  appears,  from  the  mean  of  a  large  number  of  observa- 
tions, that  the  average  quantity  of  carbon  evolved  from  the 
lungs  amounts  to  130  grains  per  hour,  or  3,120  grains  in 
24  hours,  which  is  rather  more  than  1  ounces  daily.  This 
calculation  does  not  take  into  account  the  carbonic  acid 
evolved  by  cutaneous  respiration.  The  quantity  of  oxygen 
consumed  in  respiration  varies  also  with  the  state  of  exer- 
tion or  repose  of  the  individual.  According  to  an  observa- 
tion of  Lavoisier,  the  consumption  of  oxygen  in  the  two 
states  was  as  32  to  14.  The  quantity  of  vapor  given  off  by 
the  lungs  has  also  been  variously  stated,  but  the  average  is 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  63 

supposed  to  be  about  three  grains  per  minute.  According  to 
Thexard,  the  amount  of  vapor  given  off  by  the  skin  varies 
from  9  to  20  grains  per  minute. 

In  the  process  of  respiration,  a  full  grown  man  draws 
iuto  his  chest  about  20  cubic  inches  of  air  ;  only  one-fifth 
of  this  is  oxygeu,  and  nearly  one-half  of  this  oxygen  is  con- 
verted into  carbonic  acid.  Now,  allowing  fifteen  inspirations 
per  minute  for  a  man,  he  will  vitiate  about  300  cubic  inches, 
or  nearly  one-sixth  of  a  cubic  foot  of  atmospheric  air;  and 
this,  by  mingling  as  it  escapes  with  several  times  as  much, 
renders  at  least  two  cubic  feet  of  air  unfit  for  respiration. 
Now,  the  removal  of  this  impure  air,  and  the  bringing  in  of 
a  constant  fresh  supply,  have  been  provided  for  by  nature  in 
the  most  perfect  manner,  and  it  is  by  our  ill-contrived  arti- 
ficial arrangements  that  the  provision  is  defeated.  The 
expired  and  vitiated  air,  as  it  leaves  the  chest,  is  heated  to 
very  near  the  temperature  of  the  body,  viz.  98°,  and  being 
expanded  by  the  heat,  is  specifically  lighter  than  the  sur- 
rounding air  at  any  ordinary  temperature;  it  therefore 
ascends  and  escapes  to  a  higher  level,  by  the  colder  air 
pushing  it  up,  as  it  does  a  balloon.  The  place  of  this  heated 
air  is  constantly  supplied  by  the  colder  and  denser  air  clos- 
ing in  on  all  sides.  In  the  open  air,  the  process  is  perfect, 
because  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  vitiated 
air;  but  iu  a  close  apartment,  the  hot  air,  rising  up  to  the 
ceiling,  is  prevented  from  escaping;  and  gradually  accumu- 
lating and  becoming  cooler,  it  descends  and  mingles  with  the 
fresh  air,  which  occupies  the  lower  level.  We  thus  have  to 
inhale  an  atmosphere  which  every  moment  becomes  more 
and  more  impure  and  unfit  for  respiration ;  and  the  impuri- 
ties become  increased  much  more  rapidly  by  night,  when 
lamps,  or  candles  or  gas  are  burning,  for  flame  i.s  a  rapid 
consumer  of  oxygen.  Under  these  circumstances,  our  only 
chance  of  escape  from  suffocation  is  iu  the  defective  work- 
manship of  the  house  carpenter;  the  crevices  in  the  window- 
frames  and  doors  allow  the  foul  air  a  partial  exit,  as  may  ba 


64  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

proved  by  holding  the  flame  of  a  caudle  near  the  top  of  a 
closed  door,  in  a  hot  room ;  it  will  be  seen  that  the  flame  is 
powerfully  drawn  towards  the  door  in  the  direction  of  the 
outgoing  current;  and  on  holding  the  flame  near  the  bottom 
of  the  door,  it  will  be  blown  away  from  the  door,  showing 
the  direction  of  the  entering  current.  If  we  stop  up  these 
crevices,  by  putting  list  rouud  the  windows  and  doors,  so  as 
to  make  them  fit  accurately,  we  only  increase  the  evil.  The 
first  effect  is,  that  the  fire  will  not  draw  for  want  of  suffi- 
cient draught;  if  the  inmates  can  put  up  with  a  dull  fire  and 
a  smoky  atmosphere,  they  soon  become  restless  and  uncom- 
fortable; young  people  get  fretful  and  peevish — their  elders 
irritable ;  respiration  becomes  impeded — a  tight  band  appears 
to  be  drawn  round  the  forehead,  which  some  invisible  hand 
seems  to  be  drawing  tighter  and  tighter  every  moment ;  the 
eyeballs  ache  and  throb;  a  sense  of  languor  succeeds  to  fits 
of  restless  impatience — yawning  becomes  general — for  yawn- 
ing is  nothing  more  than  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  more  air 
into  the  lungs.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  announcement 
of  tea  is  a  welcome  sound ;  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the 
door  necessary  to  its  preparation  give  a  vent  to  the  foul  air; 
the  stimulus  of  the  meal  mitigates  the  suffering  for  a  time, 
but  before  the  hour  of  rest,  the  same  causes  of  discomfort 
have  been  again  in  active  operation,  and  the  family  party 
retires  for  the  night  indisposed  and  out  of  humor. 

But  in  the  bed-room,  the  inmates  are  not  free  from  the 
malignant  influence.  The  closed  doors,  the  curtained  bed, 
and  the  well-closed  windows,  are  sentinels  which  jealously 
guard  against  the  approach  of  fresh  air.  The  unconscious 
sleepers,  at  each  respiration,  vitiate  a  portion  of  air  which, 
in  obedience  to  the  law  of  nature,  rises  to  the  ceiling,  and 
would  escape,  if  the  means  of  escape  were  provided  ;  but, 
in  the  absence  of  this,  it  soon  shakes  off  those  aerial  wings, 
which  would  have  carried  it  away,  and  becoming  cooler  and 
denser,  it  descends,  and  again  enters  the  lungs  of  the 
sleepers,  who  unconsciously  inhale  the  poison.     When  the 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  05 

room  has  become  surcharged  with  foul  air,  so  that  a  portion 
must  escape,  then,  and  not  till  then,  does  it  begin  to  escape 
dp  the  chimney.  Hence  many  persons  very  properly 
object  to  sleeping  in  a  room  which  is  unprovided  with  a 
chimney;  but  it  is  evident  that  such  a  ventilator  is  situated 
too  low  down  to  be  of  much  service.  If  there  be  no 
chimney  in  the  room,  a  portion  of  the  foul  air  escapes  by 
forcing  its  way  out  of  some  of  the  cracks  and  crevices  which 
serve  to  admit  the  fresh  air. 

That  this  sketch  is  not  overdrawn,  must  be  evident  to  any 
one  who,  after  an  early  morning's  walk,  may  have  returned 
directly  from  the  fresh  morning  air  into  the  bed-room  which 
he  had  left  closely  shut  up  an  hour  before.     What  is  more 
disgusting  than  the  odor  of  a  bed-room  in  the  morning  ? 
Why  is   it  that  so  many  persons  get  up  without  feeling 
refreshment  from  their  sleep?     Why  do  so  many  persons 
pass  sleepless  nights?     The  answer  to  these  and  many  other 
similar   questions   may   be   frequently   found  in   defective 
ventilation.     LTow  much  disease  and  misery  arises  from  this 
cause,  it  would  be  difficult  to  state  with  any  approach  to 
accuracy,  because  the  causes  of  misery  are  very  complicated. 
Among  the  poor,  the  want  of  sufficient  nourishment,  neglect 
of  temperance  and  cleanliness,  and  excessive  labor,  all  act 
with  aggravating  effect  upon  want  of  ventilation  and  drain- 
age.    Among   the   middle   classes,  mental   anxiety,    over- 
tasked   powers,    insufficient    out-door   exercise,    are    also 
aggravating  causes;  but  there  is  a  similar  want  of  attention 
to  ventilation  and  drainage.     The  rich  suffer  least,  because 
they  pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  pure  air  of  the  country, 
and  are  relieved  from  a  good  deal  of  anxiety,  by  being  inde- 
pendent in  circumstances;  their  rooms  are  also  larger  and 
less  crowded  than  those  of  the  other  classes;  but  still  there 
is  a  neglect  of  ventilation,  and  they  often  breathe  a  poison- 
ous  atmosphere   for   hours  together   in  the  crowded  and 
heated  ball-room,  the  theatre,  and  the  fashionable  assembly; 
fainting,  headache,  and  sickness,  are  not  uncommon  results. 


66  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

A  poisonous  atmosphere  \  The  expression  will  not  be 
found  too  strong,  when  we  examine  the  ingredients  of  the  air 
of  an  unventilated  room.  The  products  of  combustion, 
whether  they  be  those  of  the  respiration  of  human  beings, 
or  the  burning  of  artificial  light,  consist  of — 1.  Carbonic  acid; 
2.  Nitrogen;  3.  Vapor  of  water,  mingled  with  various 
animal  products  of  a  very  offensive  nature.  Gas  also  often 
contains  a  minute  portion  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  which 
escapes,  and  a  minute  portion  of  the  gas  itself  fcarburetted 
hydrogenj  also  escapes  unburnt. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  is  a  deadly  poison.  If  we  attempt  to  inhale 
it  by  putting  the  face  over  the  edge  of  a  beer  vat,  the  nos- 
trils and  throat  are  irritated  so  strongly,  that  the  glottis 
closes,  and  inspiration  becomes  impossible.  In  its  pure  state, 
then,  it  is  impossible  to  breathe  carbonic  acid  gas;  but 
when  this  gas  is  largely  diluted  with  air,  it  can  be  breathed, 
and  the  symptoms  resemble  those  of  apoplexy.  Professor 
Chritison  quotes  a  case  related  by  M.  Chokel,  of  Paris,  of 
a  laborer,  who  was  suddenly  let  down  to  the  bottom  of  a 
well  containing  carbonic  acid  diluted  with  air,  where  he 
remained  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  On  being  drawn  up, 
he  was  first  affected  with  violent  and  irregular  convulsions 
of  the  whole  body,  accompanied  by  perfect  insensibility; 
fits  of  spasm,  like  tetanus,  then  came  on.  During  the  second 
day,  these  symptoms  went  off,  and  he  continued  afterwards 
to  be  affected  with  dumbness.  It  is  especially  to  be  noted, 
that,  contrary  to  general  popular  belief,  these  effects  may  be 
produced  in  situations  where  the  air  is  not  sufficiently  impure 
to  extinguish  the  flame  of  a  candle;  nor  does  the  lurking 
danger  display  itself  to  the  sense  of  taste  or  of  smell. 

The  danger  of  using  charcoal  as  a  fuel  will  be  noticed 
further  on ;  but  we  may  here  remark,  that  the  proportion 
of  carbonic  acid  necessary  to  produce  a  poisonous  atmos- 
phere is  very  small ;  so  much  so,  that  in  attempts  at  suicide 
by  burning  charcoal  in  an  open  room,  the  people  who  have 
entered  the  apartment  have  found  the  air  quite  rcspirable, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BlILOER.  61 

and  the  choffer  burning,  although  the  person  they  sought 
was  in  a  state  of  deep  coma,  from  having  been  long  exposed 
to  the  noxious  influence.  , 

Now,  as  no  person  would  consent  habitually  to  swallow 
a  small  portion  of  liquid  poison,  knowing  it  to  be  such, 
though  diluted  with  a  very  large  portion  of  pure  water,  so 
it  is  equally  unwise  to  consent  habitually  to  inhale  a  small 
portion  of  gaseous  ooison,  knowing  it  to  be  such,  though 
diluted  with  a  very  large  portion  of  pure  air;  and  yet  this 
is  what  the  majority  of  persons  actually  do  who  occupy 
apartments  unprovided  with  proper  ventilating  apparatus. 

Nitrogen  gas,  which  constitutes  four-fifths  of  our  atmos- 
phere, is  not,  like  carbonic  acid  gas,  a  poison.  Its  proper- 
ties are  altogether  inert:  it  will  not  support  respiration  nor 
combustion,  simply  from  the  absence  of  oxygen.  An  animal 
plunged  into  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen  would  die,  simply 
because  this  gas  is  incapable  of  oxygenizing  the  blood.  A 
flame  is  extinguished  in  this  gas,  simply  because  there  is  no 
affinity  between  it  and  the  incandescent  hydrogen  and  carbon. 

The  vapor  given  off  by  the  lungs  and  the  skin  is  charged 
with  offensive  auimal  efiuvia,  which  greatly  promote  the 
contamination  of  the  air  of  a  crowded  apartment.  Doctor 
Faraday  expressed  his  opinion,  in  1835,  on  the  subject  of 
ventilation,  that — "  Air  feels  unpleasant  in  the  breathing 
cavities,  including  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  not  merely 
from  the  absence  of  oxygen,  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid, 
or  the  elevation  of  temperature,  b"t  from  other  causes, 
depending  on  matters  which  are  communicated  to  it  by  the 
human  being.  I  think  that  an  individual  may  find  a  decided 
difference  in  his  feelings  when  making  part  of  a  large  com- 
pany, from  what  he  does  when  one  of  a  small  Dumber  of 
persons,  and  yet  the  thermomether  give  the  same  indica- 
tion. When  I  am  one  of  a  large  number  of  persons,  I  feel 
an  oppressive  sensation  of  closeness,  notwithstanding  the 
temperature  may  he  about  60°  or  65°,  which  I  do  not  feel 
in  a  small  company  at  the  same  temperature,  and  which  I 


68  THE    AMERICAN    COTtAGE    BUILDER. 

cannot  refer  altogether  to  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  or  thf 
evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  and  probably  depends  upon  the 
effluvia  from  the  many  present;  but  with  me,  it  is  much 
diminished  by  a  lowering  of  the  temperature,  and  the  sen- 
sations become  much  more  like  those  occuring  in  a  small 
company.  The  object  of  a  good  system  of  ventilation  is  to 
remove  the  effects  of  such  air." 

The  effects  of  air,  vitiated  by  animal  effluvia,  is  evident 
in  the  diseases  of  the  lower  animals  when  crowded  tos;ether 
in  confined  places.  The  glanders  of  horses,  the  pip  of  fowls, 
and  a  peculiar  disease  in  sheep,  all  arise  from  this  cause; 
and  it  is  stated  that,  for  some  years  past,  the  English  nation 
has  been  saved  £10,000  a  year,  in  consequence  of  the  army 
veterinary  surgeons  adopting  a  simple  plan  for  the  ventila- 
tion of  the  cavalry  stables. 

Our  systems  of  artificial  illumination  have  even  a  greater 
deteriorating  effect  upon  the  air  of  an  apartment  than  the 
respiration  of  human  beings.  The  leakage  of  a  gas-pipe,  or 
the  imperfect  combustion  of  the  gas  itself,  in  an  apartment, 
would  cause  the  inmates  to  inhale  a  portion  of  the  gas.  Sir 
IIoiphrey  Davy  found,  that  when  he  breathed  a  mixture  of 
two  parts  air,  and  three  of  carburetted  hydrogen,  he  was 
attacked  with  giddiness,  headache,  and  transient  weakness 
of  the  limbs;  but  common  gas  is  often  contaminated  with 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  as  the  blackening  of  the  white 
painted  wainscoting  of  rooms  proves,  in  spite  of  the  purifying 
processes  adopted  at  the  gas  works.  This  gas  is  the  most 
deleterious  of  all  the  aerial  poisons.  It  has  been  found  by 
experiment,  that  air,  impregnated  with  a  1,500th  part  of 
the  gas,  kills  a  bird  in  a  short  space  of  time ;  and  that  with 
about  twice  that  proportion,  or  an  800th,  it  will  soon  kill  a 
dog.  This  gas  is  emitted  by  cesspools  and  sewers,  and  has 
been  a  frequent  cause  of  death  when  breathed  in  a  state  of 
concentration.  "  The  individual  becomes  suddenly  weak 
and  insensible;  falls  down,  and  either  expires  immediately, 
or  if  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  be  quickly  extricated,  he  may 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUI.HKK.  G9 

revive  in  no  long;  time,  the  belly  remaining  tense  and  full 
for  an  hour  or  upwards,  and  recovery  being  preceded  l>y 

vomiting  and  hawking  of  bloody  froth."  When  the  noxious 
emanations  are  less  concentrated,  the  symptoms  are  still 
very  alarming;  and  in  the  dilute  form,  as  in  the  emanations 
from  the  gully-holes  of  the  sewers  of  London,  persons  inhal- 
ing them  have  often  been  attacked  with  sickness,  colic, 
imperfectly-defined  pains  in  the  chest,  and  lethargy. 

The  emauatious  arising  from  the  imperfect  or  slow  com- 
bustion of  oil  and  tallow  are  most  injurious  to  health.  The 
vapor  of  a  smoky  lamp,  if  disengaged  in  small  quantities, 
excites  intense  head-ache.  The  fumes  of  the  burning  snuff 
of  a  candle  are  probably  of  the  same  nature,  and  are  very 

ouous,  and  every  one  must  have  remarked  their  pene- 
trating nature;  they  fill  the  room  the  moment  a  caudle  is 
blown  out,  and  their  disgusting  odor  pervades  the  whole 
house  in  a  very  short  time.  Dr.  Christisox  quotes  a  case 
in  which  they  proved  fatal:  A  party  of  ironsmiths,  who  were 
carousing  on  a  festival  day  at  Leipzig,  amused  themselves 
with  plaguing  a  boy,  who  was  asleep  in  a  corner  of  the 
room,  by  holdiug  under  his  nose  the  smoke  of  a  candle  just 
extinguished;  at  first  he  was  roused  a  little  each  time,  but 
when  the  amusement  had  been  continued  for  half  an  hour, 
he  began  to  breathe  laboriously;  was  then  attacked  with 
incessant  epileptic  convulsions,  and  died  on  the  third  day. 

In  addition  to  all  these  contaminating  agents,  carbonic 
acid,  nitrogen,  animal  effluvia,  carburetted  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  &c,  to  which  the  air  of  an  nnventilated  apart- 
ment is  liable,  there  is  yet  another  cause  of  injury  to  health 
in  the  disturbed  electrical  condition  of  vitiated  air.  This  is 
a  subject  on  which  science  has  hitherto  thrown  no  light. 
All  that  we  can  do  is  to  record  the  fact,  that  pure  air,  Buch 
as  is  fit  for  respiration,  is  positively  electric,  while  the  air 
which  has  become  impure,  and  consequently  unfit  for 
respiration,  is  negatively  electric. 

The  effects  of  breathing  an  impure  air  have  frequent Ij 


•TO  TKE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

been  insisted  upon  by  medical   and  other  writers.     It  is 
stated,  that  scrofulous  diseases  are  a  common  result  of  bad 
ventilation,  and  that,  in  the  case  of  silk  weavers,  who  pass 
their  lives  in  a  more  close  and  confined  air  than  almost  any 
other  class  of  persons,  their  children  are  peculiarly  subject 
to  scrofula,  and  softening  of  the  bones.   Dr.  Arnott  stated, 
that   an  individual,   the  offspring  of  persons   successively 
living  in  bad  air,  will  have  a  constitution  decidedly  different 
from  a  man  who  is  born  of  a  race  that  has  inhabited  the 
country  for  a  long  time;  that  the  race  would,  to  a  certain 
extent,  continue  degenerating.     Defective  ventilation  dead- 
ens both  the  mental  and  bodily  energies;  it  leaves  its  mark 
upon  the  person,  so  that  we  can  distinguish  the  inhabitants 
of  a  town  from  those  of  the  country.     This  witness,  in 
alluding  to  the  want  of  knowledge  among  all  classes  on  the 
subject  of  ventilation,  states,  that  he' had  heard   at   the 
Zoological  Gardens  of  a  class  of  animals  where  fifty  out  of 
sixty  were  killed  in  a  month,  from  putting  them  into  a 
house  which  had  no  opening  in  it  but  a  few  inches  in  the 
floor.     "It  was  like  putting  them  under  an  extinguisher; 
and  this  was  supposed  to  be  done  upon  scientific  principles." 
Some  of  the  details  in  this  report  of  diseases  consequent 
on  the  habitual  breathing  of  air  vitiated  by  a  number  of 
human  beings,  crowded  together  in  a  badly  drained  and  ill- 
ventilated  part  of  London,  are  so  frightful,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  quote  them  here.     No  doubt  these  details  refer  to 
extreme  cases  among  the  poor  and  destitute;  but  no  one 
will  contend  that  the  science  and  legislation  of  the  day 
should  be  exerted  only  for  those  who  have  influence  to  com- 
mand, or  means  to  purchase  their  aid.     Every  one  who  has 
knowledge  or  wealth  at  his  disposal,  is  bound  to  exert  it  as 
much  for  the  benefit  of  his  ignorant  aud  poorer  brethren  as 
for  his  own  pleasure  and  profit.     There  is  not  only  a  moral 
law  requiring  us  to  do  so,  but  there  is  also  a  natural  law,  and 
both  have  this  distinguishing  proof  of  their  divine  origin— 
thev  are  self-acting:  they  confer  the  reward  of  6bedience; 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BT7ILDEB  71 

nnd  inflict  the  penalty  of  transgression,  with  a  precision  and 
certainty  which  Gnd  no  parallel  in  mere  human  laws  and 
institutions.  The  fevers  and  contagious  diseases  arising  from 
our  neglect  of  the  poor,  find  their  way  into  our  own  dwell- 
ings; the  miasma  of  our  courts  and  alleys  enters  our  lungs, 
and  casts  us  on  a  bed  of  sickness.  If,  through  the  mercy 
of  God,  we  are  permitted  to  rise  again,  ought  we  not  to 
practise  the  lesson  which  the  penalty  has  been  seeking  to 
convey  to  us  ? 

But  not  only  are  our  dwelling  houses  badly  ventilated, 
but  those  buildings  on  which  the  architect  has  lavished  all 
his  art  and  skill  are,  for  the  most  part,  entirely  destitute  of 
special  means  for  ventilation;  and  are  so  constructed,  as  to 
render  the  application  of  such  means  extremely  difficult,  or 
even  impossible.      Such  a  contrivance  seldom  enters  the 
mind  of  the  architect.     A  building  capable  of  holding  from 
800  to  1000  persons,  whether  it  be  a  church,  a  lecture  room, 
an  assembly  room,  or  a  concert  room,  is,  in  consequence  of 
this  neglect,  the  too-frequent  scene  of  much  painful  suffer- 
ing.    When  such  a  room  is  crowded,  and  the  meeting  lasts 
for  some  hours,  especially  in  winter,  the  consequences  are 
sufficiently  marked;  "  either  such  a  multitude  must  be  sub- 
jected to  all  the  evils  of  a  contaminated  and  unwholesome 
atmosphere,  or  they  must  be  partially  relieved  by  opening 
the  windows,  and  allowing  a  continued  stream  of  cold  air 
to  pour  down  upon  the  heated  bodies  of  those  who  are  near 
them,  till  the  latter  are  thoroughly  chilled,  and,  perhaps, 
fatal  illness  is  induced;  and  unfortunately,  even  at  such  a 
price,  the  relief  is  only  partial,  for  the  windows  being  all 
on  one  side  of  the  room,  and  not  extending  much  above  half 
way  to  the  ceiling,  complete  ventilation  is  impracticable. 
This  neglect  is  glaringly  the  result  of  ignorance,  and  could 
never   have  happened,    had   either  the  architects   or   em- 
ployers known  the  laws  of  the  human  constitution." 

Dr.  Combe  remarks,  that  in  churches  fainting  and  hysterics 
occur  more  frequently  in  the  afternoon  than  in  the  morning. 


72  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

because  the  air  is  then  at  its  maximum  of  vitiation.  Indeed, 
in  a  crowded  church,  the  effects  of  a  deficient  air  are  visible 
in  the  expression  of  the  features  of  every  one  present — 
"  either  a  relaxed,  sallow  paleness  of  the  surface,  or  the  hectic 
flush  of  fever  is  observable,  and,  as  the  necessary  accom- 
paniment, a  sensation  of  mental  and  bodily  lassitude  is  felt, 
which  is  immediately  relieved  by  getting  into  the  open  air." 
Some  persons,  however,  do  not  find  this  relief ;  the  headache 
often  lasts  for  hours,  and  ends  in  a  bilious  or  nervous  attack. 

Our  school  rooms  are  so  sadly  defective  in  respect  to 
ventilation,  and  we  have  known  cases  where,  with  all  the 
windows  open,  a  proper  supply  of  air  could  not  be  intro- 
duced into  the  crowded  apartment.  When  the  weather  did 
not  allow  of  open  windows,  the  atmosphere  of  the  room 
was  most  loathsome  to  a  visitor  entering  it  from  the  fresh 
air.  All  the  inmates  complained  of  a  sensation  of  fullness — 
tightness  in  the  forehead,  and  headache  more  or  less  acute. 
Command  of  temper  on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  and  mental 
progress  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  are  of  course  next  to 
impossible  under  such  circumstances.  The  writer  would  appeal 
to  the  experience  of  teachers  in  general,  whether  the  slow 
comprehension  and  listlessness  of  children  in  school,  who  are 
sharp  and  clever  on  the  playground,  may  not  be  traceable  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  vitiated  air  which  they  are  compelled 
to  inhale  ? 

In  curious  contrast  to  the  defective  arrangents  of  most 
of  our  public  buildings,  with  respect  to  ventilation,  are  our 
public  theatres.  These  are,  for  the  most  part,  tolerably 
well  ventilated,  or  at  least  some  attempt  is  made  to  procure 
ventilation,  and  the  managers  do  not  fail  to  parade  the  fact 
in  their  playbills  at  the  opening  of  the  season.  They  are 
practical  men;  they  know  that  for  some  years  past,  the 
attention  of  the  public  has  been  directed  to  the  subject  of 
ventilation,  and  that  a  studious  attention  to  the  comfort  of 
the  house  is  as  likely  to  bring  people  to  it  as  attractive 
performances.     They  know,  too,  that  people  are  more  likely 


»tTh 


&3SJ 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  73 

to  enjoy  and  applaud  the  business  of  the  stage  when  they 
can  breathe  freely,  than  when  the  head  is  aching  and  the 
senses  are  steeped  in  the  drowsiness  of  a  niephitic  atmosphere. 
Some  of  the  methods  of  ventilating  theatres,  are  clever  and 
efficient,  as  will  be  noticed  hereafter,  and  could  easily  be 
applied  to  those  far  more  important  buildings,  the  church 
and  the  lecture  room. 

The  traveler,  in  pursuit  of  health,  business,  or  pleasure, 
is  everywhere  exposed  to  inconvenience  and  suffering  from 
want  of  ventilation.  In  our  coaches,  railway-carriages,  and 
steam-boats,  there  are  no  means — or  very  inefficient  ones — 
for  ventilation.  Many  of  our  readers  will  probably  be  able 
to  call  to  mind  their  nights  of  suffering  in  the  heavy  coaches 
of  twenty  years  ago,  or  less. 

In  these  introductory  remarks,  we  do  not  insist  upon  the 
necessity  of  warming  our  rooms  and  other  enclosed  spaces, 
for  that  is  an  art  which  is  practically  well  understood,  and 
will  receive  a  share  of  attention  in  this  little  work.  But  if 
warming  is  easy  and  well  understood,  ventilation  is  also 
easy  and  badly  understood ;  that  is,  it  is  very  easy  to  venti- 
late a  room  or  a  building,  but  the  necessity  for  doing  so  is 
not  generally  admitted  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  nor 
even  by  those  whose  duty  is  to  teach  them  and  to  provide 
for  the  practice.  But  to  combine  the  two  arts,  to  warm 
a  room  sufficiently,  and  at  the  same  time  to  ventilate  it 
thoroughly,  is  not  easy,  for  the  very  means  employed  to 
ventilate  a  room,  must  necessarily  dissipate  and  carry  away 
the  heat  employed  in  warming  it.  Something,  however, 
may  and  ought  to  be  done  to  combine  the  two  methods,  as 
'we  shall  endeavor  to  show;  but  before  entering  upon  prac- 
tical details,  it  is  necessary  to  invite  attention  to  such  of  the 
laws  of  heat  as  are  more  immediately  connected  with  our 
subject.  We  can  scarcely  do  more,  in  our  limited  space^ 
than  bring  together  a  few  of  the  results  of  scientific  princi- 
ples, and  refer  the  reader  to  large  and  more  comprehensive 

treatises  for  their  verification. 

4 


74  TTIE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

Heat  is  given  off  from  bodies  by  two  distinct  processes — 
radiation  and  conviction.  In  radiation,  rays  of  heat  diverge 
in  straight  lines  from  every  part  of  a  heated  surface,  aud 
also  from  extremely  minute  depths  below  such  surface. 
These  rays,  like  rays  of  light,  are  subject  to  the  laws  of 
refraction  aud  reflection,  and  their  intensity  decreases  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.  When  we  approach  an  open  fire, 
or  the  suiface  of  a  stove,  we  feel  its  heat  by  radiation,  and 
it  has  been  ascertained  that,  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of 
hot  water  pipes,  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  cooling  effect 
is  due  to  radiation. 

But  the  amount  of  radiation  of  a  body  heated  above  the 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere  depends  greatly 
upon  the  nature  of  its  surface.  If  a  vessel  of  hot  water, 
coated  with  lamp  black,  radiate  100  parts  of  heat  within  a 
given  time,  a  similar  vessel,  containing  water  of  the  same 
temperature,  coated  with  writing  paper,  will  radiate  98  parts 
of  heat;  resin,  96;  China  ink,  88;  red  lead,  or  isinglass, 
80;  plumbago,  15;  tarnished  lead,  45;  tin,  scratched  with 
sand  paper,  22;  mercury,  20;  clean  lead,  19;  polished  iron, 
15;  tin  plate,  12. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  velocity  of  cooling  for  a  surface 
of  cast  iron,  Mr.  Hood  selected  a  pipe  of  thirty  inches  long, 
2i  inches  diameter  internally,  and  3  inches  diameter  exter- 
nally. The  rates  of  cooling  were  tried  with  different  states 
of  the  surface;  first,  when  covered  with  the  usual  brown 
surface  of  protoxide  of  iron;  next  it  was  varnished  black, 
and  finally  the  varnish  was  scraped  off,  and  the  pipe  painted 
white  with  two  coats  of  lead  paint.  The  ratios  of  cooling 
1°  were  found  to  be  for  the  black  varnished  surface  1.21 
minutes;  for  the  iron  surface,  1.25  minutes,  and  for  the 
white  painted  surface,  1.28  minutes.  "  These  ratios  are  in 
the  proprrtion  of  100,  103.3,  aud  105. T;  but,  as  the  relative 
heating  effect  is  the  inverse  of  the  time  of  cooling,  we  shall 
find  that  100  feet  of  varnished  pipe,  103^  feet  of  plain  iron 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  7b 

pipe,  or  105|  feet  of  iron  pipe,  painted  white,  will  each  pro- 
duce an  equal  effect."  * 

Leslie  found  that  tarnished  surfaces,  or  such  as  are 
roughened  by  emery,  by  the  fde,  or  by  drawing  streaks  or 
lines  with  a  graving  tool,  had  their  radiating  power  con- 
siderably increased.  But,  according  to  Melloni,  the  rough- 
ness of  the  surface  merely  acts  by  altering  the  superficial 
density,  which  varies  according  as  the  body  is  of  a  greater 
or  less  density,  previous  to  the  alteration  of  its  surface  by 
roughening.  The  following  experiment  gives  the  data  for 
this  conclusion  :  Melloxi  took  four  plates  of  silver,  two  of 
which,  when  cast,  were  left  in  their  natural  state,  without 
hammering,  and  the  other  two  were  planished  to  a  high 
degree  under  the  hammer.  All  four  plates  were  then  firmly 
polished  with  pumice-stone  and  charcoal;  and  after  this,  one 
of  each  of  the  pairs  of  plates  was  roughened,  by  rubbing 
with  coarse  emery  paper  in  one  direction.  The  quantity  of 
heat  radiated  from  these  plates  was  as  follows: — 

Hammered  and  polished  plate,  ...  10    degrees. 

Hammered  and  roughened  plate,  -        -        -        -      18 

Cast  and  polished  plate 13.7 

Cast  and  roughened  plate 11-3 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  hard-hammered  [date  was  increased 
in  radiating  power  four-fifths,  by  roughening  its  surface, 
while  the  soft-cast  plate  lost  nearly  one-fifth  of  its  power  by 
the  same  process. 

When  a  body  is  exposed  to  a  source  of  heat,  a  portion 
of  it  is  absorbed,  and  it  has  been  proved,  experimentally, 
that  the  absorptive  power  of  bodies  for  heat  is  precisely 
equal  to  their  radiative  power.  It  was  long  supposed  that 
color  had  great  influence  on  radiation  and  absorption.  By 
exposing  variously-colored  surfaces  to  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
their  absorbing  power  was  in  the  following  order — black, 
blue,  green,  red,  yellow  and  white.  Hence  it  would 
naturally  be  expected,  that  the  radiating  powers  of  differ- 

*  Practical  Treat itr  on  Warming  Buildings,  cfc,  Loudon,  1844. 


76  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

ently-colored  bodies  would  be  in  this  order,  and  that  by 
painting  a  body  of  a  dark  color,  we  should  increase  its 
radiating  power.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  the 
absorption  and  radiation  of  simple  heat,  or  heat  without 
light,  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  surface  rather  than  on 
color.  Heat  of  low  temperature,  or  that  which  proceeds 
from  bodies  of  low  temperature,  becomes  less  connected 
with  color  the  lower  the  temperature. 

The  numbers  which  represent  the  radiating  powers  of 
different  bodies  for  invisible  or  non-luminous  heat,  or  heat 
of  low  temperature  (as  given  above),  evidently  bear  no 
relation  to  color,  for  lamp-black  and  writing  paper  are 
nearly  equal;  Indian  ink  is  much  less,  and  plumbago  still 
less.  A  thermometer  bulb,  coated  with  a  paste  of  chalk,  is 
affected  by  invisible  heat  even  more  than  a  similar  one 
coated  with  Indian  ink ;  but  this  result  does  not  occur  when 
the  heat  is  from  a  luminous  source.  Thus  it  was  found  by 
Scheele  that  when  two  spirit  thermometers,  one  containing 
colored,  the  other  colorless  alcohol,  were  exposed  to  the 
sun,  the  colored  liquid,  rose  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
colorless;  but  when  they  were  both  plunged  into  a  vessel 
containining  hot  water,  they  rose'  equally  in  equal  times. 

The  propagation  of  heat  by  conduction  is  a  very  different 
process  from  that  of  radiation.  By  conduction,  the  heat 
travels  through  or  among  the  particles  of  solid  matter;  and 
is  gradually  communicated  by  one  group  of  particles  to  the 
neighboring  group,  and  by  this  to  the  next  group,  and  so 
on,  until  the  temperature  of  the  body  in  contact  with  the 
source  of  heat  is  raised  more  or  less  above  the  temperature 
of  the  air.  When  heat  is  communicated  to  a  fluid  body, 
the  process  is  different.  In  consequence  of  the  great 
mobility  of  its  particles,  those  which  first  come  under  the 
action  of  the  source  of  heat,  being  raised  in  temperature, 
escape  from  its  influence,  and  ascend  through  the  fluid 
mass,  distributing  a  portion  of  their  acquired  heat  among 
other  particles  on  its  way;  other  particles  immediately  take 


TIIE    AMERICAN     COTTAGE    BUILDER.  17 

its  place,  and,  being  heated,  ascend  in  like  manner,  and 
distribute  their  heat.  By  this  process  of  convection,  as  it  is 
called,  the  whole  of  the  particles  in  a  confined  mass  of  fluid 
come  under  the  action  of  the  heating  body;  those  first 
heated,  escape  as  far  as  possible  from  the  source  of  heat, 
and  becoming  cooled,  descend  again  to  be  heated,  and  again 
to  ascend  and  descend.  In  this  way  a  circulation  is  main- 
tained in  the  whole  mass  of  fluid. 

It  is  only  by  this  process  of  convection  that  air  may  be 
said  to  be  a  conducting  body,  for  if  a  mass  of  air  be  confined 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  free  motion  of  its  particles, 
it  ceases  almost  entirely  to  conduct  heat,  and  may  be  use- 
fully employed  to  retain  heat;  as  in  the  case  of  double 
windows,  the  enclosed  mass  of  air  prevents  the  heat  escaping 
from  the  apartment,  and  shields  the  glass  which  is  in  contact 
with  the  warm  air  of  the  room,  from  the  cooling  action  of 
the  external  air.  According  to  some  experiments  by  Mr. 
Hood,  each  square  foot  of  glass  will  cool  1.219  cubic  feet 
of  air  1°  per  minute,  when  the  temperature  of  the  glass  is 
1°  above  that  of  the  external  air.  This,  however,  is  in  a 
still  atmosphere.  The  cooling  effect  of  external  windows, 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  winds,  has  not  been  accur- 
ately determined.  It  appears  that  the  cooling  effect  of 
wind,  at  different  velocities,  on  a  thin  surface  of  glass,  such 
as  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer,  is  very  nearly  as  the  square 
root  of  the  velocity.  But  there  are  many  objections  to 
applying  the  results  obtained  from  the  thin  glass  of  a 
thermometer  bulb  to  the  comparatively  thick  glass  of 
windows.  Glass  is  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  the 
cooling  effect  of  wind  upon  it  is  not  so  great  as  is  generally 
supposed. 

Solids  differ  greatly  in  their  heat-conducting  powers.  If 
gold  conduct  100  parts  of  heat,  platina  will  conduct  98.10 
parts;  silver,  91.30;  copper,  89.82;  iron,  31.43;  zinc,  36.30; 
tin,  30.39;  lead,  11.96;  marble,  23.60;  porcelain,  12.20; 
fire-brick,    11.40.      The   slow   conducting    power   of  such 


78  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

bodies  as  porcelain,  brick  and  glass,  may  be  contrasted  with 
the  rapid  conducting  power  of  some  of  the  metals  by 
holding  one  end  of  a  piece  of  each  substance  in  a  flame;  the 
metal  will  soon  become  too  hot  for  the  hand,  while  the 
porcelain  may  be  heated  to  redness  in  the  flame  without  its 
being  felt  to  be  much  warmer  at  the  other  end.  A  practical 
application  of  this  property  is  also  to  be  found  in  the 
materials  of  close  stoves  for  heating  apartments;  for  while 
those  in  which  the  outer  case  consists  of  copper  or  iron, 
receive  their  heat  quickly  and  part  with  it  quickly,  those 
which  are  lined  with  brick  and  covered  with  porcelain 
receive  their  heat  slowly,  and  communicate  it  slowly  to  the 
air  of  the  apartment.  Much,  however,  depends  on  the 
thickness  of  the  metal  casing,  for,  by  increasing  this,  it  will, 
of  course,  retain  its  heat  longer. 

When  a  heated  body  cools  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
it  is  by  the  united  effects  of  radiation  and  conduction,  and 
the  rate  of  cooling  increases  considerably,  in  proportion  as 
the  temperature  of  the  heated  body  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  surrounding  medium.  We  have  seen  that  the  cooling 
effect  of  radiation  depends  greatly  on  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face; but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  cooling  effect  of 
the  air  by  conduction,  has  no  reference  to  the  nature  of  the 
surface;  it  is  the  same  on  all  substances,  and  in  all  states  of 
the  surface  of  those  substances.  The  air,  in  contact  .with 
such  surfaces,  robs  them  of  a  portion  of  heat,  and  imme- 
diately ascends  to  make  way  for  other  portions  of  air,  which 
repeat  the  process.  By  these  two  processes  the  body  cools 
down  to  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air,  the  conduc- 
tive power  of  which  varies  with  its  elasticy,  or  barometric 
pressure;  the  greater  the  pressure  the  greater  also  the  cooling 
power.  It  has  also  been  shown  by  Ddlong  and  Petit,  that 
the  ratio  of  heat,  lost  by  contact  of  the  air  alone,  is  constant 
at  all  temperatures;  that  is,  whatever  is  the  ratio  between 
40°  and  80°  is  also  the  ratio  between  80°  and  160°,  or 
between  100°  and  200°. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  19 

It  was  long  supposed  that  a  certain  relation  existed 
between  the  radiating  and  conducting  powers  of  heated 
bodies,  that  the  variation  between  them  was  exactly  propor- 
tional to  the  simple  ratio  of  the  excess  of  heat;  that  is, 
supposing  any  quantity  of  heat  to  be  given  off  in  a  certain 
time,  at  a  specified  difference  of  temperature,  at  double  that 
difference  twice  the  quantity  of  heat  would  be  given  off  in 
the  same  time.  This  law  does,  to  a  certain  extent,  apply 
u  here  low  temperatures  are  concerned,  but  does  not  hold  at 
high  temperatures.  Thus,  in  a  set  of  experiments  by  Dulong 
and  Petit,  the  total  cooling  at  60°  and  120°  (CeutigradeJ, 
was  fouud  lo  be  about  as  3  to  7;  at  60°  and  180°,  as  3  to 
13;  and  60°  and  240°,  as  3  to  21;  whereas,  according  to  the 
old  theory,  these  numbers  would  have  been  as  3  to  6,  3  to  9, 
and  3  to  12.  When  the  excess  of  temperature  of  the  heated 
body  above  the  surrounding  air,  is  as  high  as  240°  Cent.,  or 
532°  Fahr.,  the  real  velocity  of  cooling  is  nearly  double 
what  it  would  have  been  by  the  old  theory,  varying,  however, 
with  the  surface. 

Since  the  heat  lost  by  contact  of  the  air  is  the  same  for 
all  bodies,  while  those  which  radiate  most,  or  are  the  worst 
conductors,  give  out  more  heat  in  the  same  time  than  those 
bodies  which  radiate  least,  or  are  good  conductors,  it  might 
be  supposed  that  those  metals  which  are  the  worst  conduc- 
tors, would  be  best  adapted  for  vessels  or  pipes  for  warming 
rooms  by  radiation.  "  Such  would  be  the  case  if  vessels 
were  infinitely  thin  ;  but  as  this  is  not  possible,  the  slow 
conducting  power  of  the  metal  (iron)  opposes  an  insuperable 
obstacle  to  the  rapid  cooling  of  any  liquid  contained  within 
it,  by  preventing  the  exterior  surface  from  reaching  so  high 
a  temperature  as  would  that  of  a  more  perfectly  conducting 
metal  under  similar  circumstances;  thus  preventing  the  loss 
of  heat  both  by  contact  of  the  air  and  by  radiation,  the 
effect  of  both  being  proportional  to  the  excess  of  heat  of 
the  exterior  suface  of  the  heated  body.  If  a  leaden  vessel 
were  infinitely  thin,  the  liquid  contained  in  it  would  cool 


80  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    EU1LDER. 

sooner  than  in  a  similar  vessel  of  copper,  brass,  or  iron;  but 
the  greater  the  thickness  of  the  metal,  the  more  apparent 
becomes  the  deviation  from  this  rule;  and  as  the  vessels  for 
containg  water  must  always  have  some  considerable  thick- 
ness, those  metals  which  are  the  worst  conductors,  will 
oppose  the  greatest  resistance  to  the  cooling  of  the  contained 
liquid.'' — Hood. 

The  reflective  power  of  different  substances  for  heat  is 
inversely  as  their  radiating  power.  If  a  surface  of  brass 
reflect  100  parts  of  heat;  a  similar  surface  of  silver  will 
reflect  90  parts;  tin  foil,  85;  block  tin,  80;  steel,  70;  lead, 
60;  tin  foil,  softened  by  mercury,  10;  glass,  10;  glass, 
coated  with  wax,  5. 

When  similar  substances  are  exposed  to  the  same  tem- 
perature, they  all  become  heated  to  the  same  degree,  as 
measured  by  the  thermometer;  but  if  the  temperatures  of 
dissimilar  substances  have  to  be  raised  to  the  same  degree, 
the  quantities  of  heat  required  for  the  purpose  will  be  very 
different  for  different  substances.  Thus,  if  we  place  side  by 
side,  upon  a  hot  plate,  two  equal  and  similar  vessels,  one 
containing  a  certain  weight  of  water,  and  the  other  an  equal 
weight  of  mercury,  the  mercury  will  soon  become  much 
hotter  than  the  water.  So,  also,  on  lowering  the  temperature 
of  dissimilar  substances  to  an  equal  degree,  some  will  give 
out  more  and  others  less  heat.  Different  bodies,  therefore, 
display  different  degrees  of  susceptibility  from  receiving  free 
heat  within  their  molecules ;  this  is  called  their  capacity  for 
heat,  and  the  quantity  required  to  raise  equal  masses  or  equal 
weights  1°,  is  termed  their  specific  heat.  The  theory  of  spe- 
cific heat  is  of  great  importance  in  a  practical  point  of  view, 
for  on  it  depend  many  of  the  calculations  for  ascertaining 
the  proportions  of  the  various  kinds  of  apparatus  employed 
in  warming  buildings. 

The  specific  heat  of  different  substances  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  mixing  together,  with  certain  precautions,  ascer- 
tained quantities  of  the  substances  under  consideration,  when 


THE    A  .  E    BUILDBS.  81 

their  mutual  capacities  for  heat  are  determined  by  the 
decrease  in  the  temperature  of  the  hotter  body,  and  by  its 
increase  in  the  cooler.  Thus,  if  1  lb.  of  mercury  at  32°, 
and  1  lb.  of  water  at  62°  be  mixed  together,  the  common 
temperature  will  be  61°.  The  temperature  of  the  metal 
has,  therefore,  risen  30°,  while  that  of  the  water  has  fallen 
1°.  If  the  mercury  had  been  at  62°,  and  the  water  at  32°, 
the  common  temperature  of  the  mixture  would  have  been 
33°.  In  this  case  the  water  would  have  gained  1°  of  tein- 
perature,  and  the  mercury  would  have  lost  30°.  Thus  it 
appears  that  the  capacity  of  water  for  heat  exceeds  that  of 
■mercury  30  times.  If  the  water  be  taken  as  unity,  the 
specific  heat  of  the  mercury  will  be  £-0  or  0.033. 

Again,  if  7  lb.  of  iron  filings  at  68°  be  mixed  with  1  lb 
of  water  at  32°,  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  will  be 
36°.  That  quantity  of  heat,  therefore,  the  loss  of  which 
lowers  the  temperature  of  iron  32°,  raises  the  temperature 
of  water  only  4°;  so  that  eight  times  as  much  heat  i? 
required  to  raise  or  depress  the  temperature  of  the  water  1°, 
as  would  raise  or  depress  the  temperature  of  an  equal 
weight  of  iron  1°.  Hence  the  specific  heat  of  iron  is  \,  oi 
0.125. 

The  capacity  of  substances  for  heat  may  also  be  found 
by  observing  the  quantity  of  ice  which  the  body  trade] 
investigation  is  capable  of  thawing.  Thus,  if  equal  weights 
of  iron  and  lead  be  operated  on,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
iron  requires  a  greater  quantity  of  heat  than  the  lead  to  pro- 
duce the  same  change  of  temperature,  in  the  proportion  of 
nearly  1 1  to  3.  If  a  bar  of  iron,  in  falling  from  100°  to  95°, 
melt  11  grains  of  ice,  then  a  bar  of  lead  of  equal  weight, 
under  similar  circumstances,  would  melt  rather  less  than  3 
grains;  heat  is  therefore  more  effective  in  warming  lead  than 
iron.  Again,  an  ounce  of  mercury  and  an  ounce  of  water, 
in  falling  from  60°  to  55°,  will  melt  quantities  of  ice,  in  the 
proportion  of  33  to  1000,  or  very  nearly  one  to  30;  that 
is,   to   raise   water  from   55°    to   60°,  requires  a  greater 


82  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

quantity  of  heat  than  to  raise  an  equal  weight  of  mercury 
through  the  same  range  of  temperature,  in  the  proportion 
of  30  tol.* 

The  specific  heat  of  bodies  has  been  determined  not  only 
for  equal  weights,  but  also  for  equal  volumes,  and  this  is 
called  their  relative  heat,  which  is  to  the  specific  heat  of  any 
substance  directly  as  its  specific  gravity  It  may  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  specific  heat  into  the  specific  gravity; 
and  conversely,  the  specific  heat  may  be  found  by  dividing 
the  relative  heat  by  the  specific  gravity.  Now,  as  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  lib. 
of  water  1°  is  sufficient  to  raise  lib.  of  mercury  30°,  we  say 
that  the  specific  heat  of  mercury  is  3a0,  taking  water  as 
unity;  and  since  the  specific  gravity  of  mercury  is  about 
13.6,  it  follows  that  the  relative  heat  of  an  equal  volume  of 
this  metal  is  &  -f  13.6  =  0.453. 

With  respect  to  gaseous  bodies,  it  has  been  found  that 
their  specific  heat  is  inversely  as  their  specific  gravity  or 
deusity;  and,  consequently,  equal  weights  of  such  gases 
contain  a  larger  quantity  of  heat,  less  their  specific  gravity. 
But  as  the  relative  weights  of  equal  volumes  of  gas  are  in- 
versely as  their  specific  gravities,  it  follows  that  equal  vol- 
umes of  these  gases  will  have  equal  relative  heat;  that  is, 

*  The  quantity  of  ice  melted  by  different  kinds  of  fuel,  affords  a  con- 
venient method  of  estimating  their  relative  values.  Thus  it  has  been 
found  that 

1  lb.  of  coal,  of  good  quality,  melts  90  lbs.  of  ice, 
coke,  "  "         84  lbs.      " 

wood,  "  "         32  lbs.      " 

"       wood  charcoal,  "         95  lbs.      " 

peat,  "  "*       19  lbs.      " 

One  method  of  estimating  how  much  of  the  heat  of  a  common  fire  is  radiated 
around  it,  and  how  much  combines  with  the  smoke,  is  to  allow  all  the 
radiant  heat  to  melt  a  quantity  of  ice  contained  in  a  vessel  surrounding  the 
fire,  and  all  the  heat  of  the  smoke  to  melt  the  ice  in  another  vessel  sur- 
rounding the  chimney.  By  comparing  the  two  quantities  of  water  thus 
obtained  with  the  quantities  of  ice  melted,  it  will  be  found,  according  to 
Dr.  Arnott,  that  the  radiant  portion  of  the  heat  Ls,  in  ordinary  cases,  rather 
less  than  the  combined,  or  less  than  half  the  whole  heat  produced. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  83 

they  will  contain  equal  quantities  of  heat  as  the  atmospheric 
air  itself.  This,  however,  refers  to  mixtures  of  gases,  for 
when  they  are  chemically  combined,  they  have  a  different 
relative  heat,  which  exceeds  that  af  common  air,  and  each 
such  gas  has  a  distinct  index  to  express  its  relative  heat,  so 
that  the  quantity  of  heat  contaiued  in  them  exceeds  that 
contained  in  an  equal  volume  of  atmospheric  air.  The  ca- 
pacity of  atmospheric  air  is  taken  as  the  unit  by  which  to 
estimate  the  specific  heat  of  gaseous  bodies;  but  sometimes 
that  of  water  is  assumed  as  the  unit,  and  then  the  capacities 
of  gases  are  comparable  with  those  of  solids  and  liquids. 
The  latter  values  are  obtained  by  multiplying  the  former 
into  0.2669,  which  is  the  index  of  the  specific  heat  of  at- 
mospheric air  compared  with  that  of  water. 

The  following  table  shows  the  specific  heat  of  various 
substances  referred  to  water  as  the  standard,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  equal 
weights  of  the  several  substances: — 


Water 

1.0000 

Carbonic  acid 

0.2210 

Aqueoua  vapor 

0.8470 

Caibonic  oxide 

0.2884 

Alcohol     - 

0.7000 

Charcoal 

0.2G31 

Ether 

0.G000 

Sulphur 

0.1850 

Oil    - 

0.5200 

Wrought  iron 

0.1100 

Air    - 

0.2609 

Mercury 

0.0330 

Hydrogen 

3.2936 

Platinum 

0.0314 

Nitrogen 

0.2754 

(Jold     - 

0.0298 

Oxvgen 

0.2361 

It  appears,  however,  that  bodies  do  not  possess  the 
same  capacity  for  heat  at  all  temperatures,  but  that  it  in- 
creases with  the  temperature;  the  quantity  of  heat  given  out 
by  any  substance  in  cooling  a  given  number  of  degrees,  is 
greater  at  high  temperatures  than  at  low  ones. 

The  method  of  ascertaining  the  specific  heat  of  gases  is 
as  follows:  The  gas  to  be  examined  is  well  dried,  and  then 
brought  from  a  vessel,  surrounded  with  water  at  212°,  gra- 
dually through  a  spiral  tube,  surrounded  by  cold  water,  the 
gas  escaping  through  the  opposite  end  of  the  spiral.  In  the 
course  of  its  passage,  the   gas  parts  with   a  portion  of  its 


84  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

heat  to  the  cold  water  which  surrounds  the  spiral,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  water  gradually  rises,  until  after  some 
time  it  becomes  stationary.  The  equilibrium  thus  estab- 
lished between  the  water  and  the  gas  is  measured  by  a 
thermometer,  so  as  to  find  both  the  rise  in  the  temperature  of 
the  water,  and  the  fall  in  that  of  the  gas.  If  the  experiment 
be  made  with  some  other  gas,  and  the  result  should  give  a 
higher  temperature  to  the  water,  then  this  second  gas  must 
have  imparted  to  the  fluid  a  greater  amount  of  heat  than 
the  former  one  did.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  temperature  of 
water  be  less  this  time  than  before,  it  will  have  given  out 
less  heat,  and  the  respective  capacities  for  heat  of  these  two 
gases  will  be  proportional  to  the  temperatures  of  the  water 
through  which  they  have  been  admitted.  The  capacity  of 
atmospheric  air  being  taken  as  the  unit,  the  specific  heat  of 
other  gases  may  be  expressed  by  proportionate  numbers. 
To  raise  lib.  of  water  from  32°  to  212°,  requires  the  same 
quantity  of  heat  as  will  raise  41b.  of  atmospheric  air  the 
same  number  of  degrees.  The  specific  heat  of  air  is  there- 
fore \,  or,  more  exactly,  0.2669  that  of  water,  as  stated  in 
the  above  table. 

When  heat  is  added  to  a  solid  body,  the  first  effect 
which  marks  the  increase  of  temperature  is  expansion  •  that 
is,  the  cohesive  or  attractive  force  becomes  more  and  more 
opposed  by  the  repulsive  force  of  heat;  the  particles  are 
consequently  separated  to  greater  distances,  and  the  temper- 
ature rises.  At  a  certain  point,  however,  the  temperature, 
as  marked  by  the  thermometer,  becomes  stationary,  and 
although  the  heat  be  continually  applied,  the  temperature 
does  not  rise.  The  solid  is  now  undergoing  a  change  of 
state ;  it  is  passing  from  the  solid  into  the  liquid  state ;  and 
no  rise  in  temperature  will  be  observed  until  the  whole  of 
the  solid  has  become  liquid.  The  point  at  which  a  body 
begins  to  fuse  or  melt,  is  called  its  fusing  point,  or  point  of 
liquefaction,  and  is  different  in  different  substances.  The 
quantity  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  body,  and  unaccounted 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  85 

for,  as  far  as  the  thermometer  is  concerned,  is  called  latent  neat. 
When  the  body  is  liquefied,  the  temperature  again  begins 
to  rise,  until  another  point  is  attained,  when  it  again  become3 
stationary,  and  the  liquid  begins  to  pass  off  in  the  form  of 
vapor  or  steam.  This  point  is  called  the  hailing  paint,  and  is 
different  in  different  substances.  The  heat  absorbed  during 
the  process  of  boiling,  or  vaporization,  is  also  called  latent. 

If,  for  example,  a  quantity  of  snow,  at  the  temperature 
of  zero,  with  a  thermometer  in  it,  be  placed  in  a  vessel  on 
the  fire,  the  temperature  will  be  observed  to  rise  to  32°;  the 
snow  will  then  immediately  begin  to  be  converted  into  water, 
and  the  thermometer  will  become  stationary  at  32°,  until 
the  whole  of  the  snow  is  melted.  This  temperature  is, 
therefore,  the  melting  or  fusing  point  of  snow  or  ice,  and 
the  heat  absorbed  or  rendered  latent  during  the  process, 
being  that  which  is  necessary  to  produce  liquefaction,  is 
hence  called  also  the  heat  of  liquefaction,  and  amounts  to 
no  less  than  140°;  that  is,  although  snow  or  ice  may  be  of 
the  same  temperature  as  water,  yet  the  water  actually  con- 
tains 140°  of  heat  more  than  the  solid  snow  or  ice.  As 
soon  as  the  whole  of  the  snow  is  melted,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  will  begin  to  rise,  and  will  continue  to  do  so 
until  it  reaches  212°,  when  the  boiling  point  of  water  is 
attained.  While  steam  is  rapidly  escaping,  the  water 
remains  at  212°;  the  heat  which  is  absorbed,  called  the  heat 
of  vaporization — being  that  which  is  required  to  maintain 
water  in  the  state  of  vapor  or  steam — amounts  to  no  less 
than  1000°  of  temperature;  that  is,  although  water  maybe 
at  212°,  and  steam  may  be  at  212°,  yet  the  steam  contains 
a  larger  amount  of  heat  than  water,  such  as  is  represented 
by  1000°  on  the  scale  of  the  thermometer. 

In  the  following  table,  the  melting  points  of  a  few  suit- 
stances  are  noted,  together  with  the  quantity  of  heat 
rendered  latent  by  each  in  passing  from  the  solid  into  the 
liquid  state.  From  these,  and  other  results,  it  may  be  seen 
that,  in  general,  the  higher  the  point  of  fusion,  the  greater 


&G  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

will  be  the  quantity  of  heat  absorbed  in  liquefaction.  There 
is,  however,  no  proportion  between  these  effects,  for  ice  and 
spermaceti  melt  at  32°  and  112°,  and  yet  the  quantities  of 
heat  rendered  latent  are  nearly  the  same. 


MELTING  POINT. 

LATENT  POINT 

Water    .    . 

32  degrees  .    ,    . 

140    degrees 

Sulphur  .    . 

.    .  213        "... 

Spermaceti  . 

.    .  112        "... 

Lead    .     .    . 

.      612        "... 

Bees'  Wax    . 

.   .    150        "... 

.     .  773        "... 

Tin    ...    . 

.442        "... 

Bismuth    .    . 

.476        "... 

.    .     .    550         " 

In  the  following  table  the  boiling  points  of  a  few  sub- 
stances are  given,  together  with  the  quantity  of  heat 
rendered  latent  by  each  in  passing  from  the  liquid  into  the 
aeriform  state. 

boiling  point,  latent  heat. 

Water      -        -        -        212  degrees.      -        -        1000    degrees. 
Alcohol  (sp.  gr.  0.7947)    173      "       (barom.  29.5)    457 
Ether  ...      98      "         ...    312.9 

Oil  of  Turpentine    -        314      "  •        -        183.8 

Nitric  Acid  (sp.gr.  1.50)210      "  -        -    550 

Ammonia 865.9 

Vinegar 903 

Petroleum 183.8 

When  water  is  boiling  in  an  open  vessel,  the  steam  which 
escapes  from  it  is  of  the  same  pressure  and  elasticity  as  the 
atmospheric  air,  and  at  212°  is  equivalent  to  30  inches  of 
mercury.  In  a  close  vessel,  however,  the  temperature  of 
the  steam  may  be  increased  to  any  extent,  and  is  only 
limited  by  the  strength  of  the  vessel  containing  it.  Thus, 
at  212°,  the  pressure  of  the  steam  is  equal  to  one  atmos- 
phere, or  151bs.  on  every  square  inch  of  surface;  at  250°, 
the  pressure  of  the  steam,  tending  to  burst  the  vessel  con- 
taining it,  is  equal  to  two  atmospheres,  or  301bs.  on  the 
square  inch;  at  215°,  the  bursting  pressure  is  that  of  three 
atmospheres,  or  451bs.  on  the  square  inch,  and  so  on.  But 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  at  all  temperatures  and 
pressures,   the  steam  contains  exactly  the  same  absolute 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BViLDSK.  87 

quantity  of  beat;  for  while  the  temperature,  as  measured  by 
the  thermometer,  increases  almost  indefinitely,  the  latent 
heat  of  high  pressure  steam  diminishes  in  exactly  the  same 
ratio,  so  that  the  sum  of  the  latent  and  sensible  heat  of 
steam  always  amounts  to  1800°  above  the  freezing  point  of 
water.  Tims,  a  certain  weight  of  steam  at  212°,  when 
condensed  into  water  at  32°,  gives  out  180°  of  sensible 
heat,  and  1000°  of  latent  heat^l  180° ;  and  the  same  weight 
of  steam  at  400°,  condensed  into  water  at  32°,  gives 
out  368°  of  sensible  heat,  and  812°  of  latent  heat=1180°. 
The  same  fact  may  be  observed  with  steam  at  all  other 
temperatures.  These  details  respecting  latent  heat  will 
enable  the  reader  to  compare  the  merits  of  the  two  systems 
of  heating  buildings  by  pipes  filled  with  hot  water,  and 
by  similar  pipes  filled  with  steam. 

In  the  former  system,  it  is  not  desirable  to  raise  the 
water  to  the  boiling  point  (212°)  because,  in  such  case, 
steam  would  be  formed,  and  this  escaping  by  the  safety- 
pipe,  would  abstract  much  useful  heat  from  the  apparatus. 
In  the  latter  system,  it  is  desirable  to  maintain  the  pipes  at 
212°,  because  at  a  lower  temperature,  the  steam  would 
condense,  and  also  absorb  much  useful  heat  from  the 
apparatus.  From  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  temper- 
ature of  212°  in  steam  pipes,  it  is  evident  that  a  given 
length  of  steam  pipe  will  afford  more  heat  than  the  same 
quantity  of  hot  water  pipe;  but  the  following  remarks  by 
Mr.  Hood,  on  the  relative  permanence  of  temperature  of 
the  two  methods,  will  show  an  advantage  in  favor  of  the 
hot  water  system: 

"The  weight  of  steam,  at  the  temperature  of  212°,  com- 
pared with  the  weight  of  water  at  212°,  is  about  as  1  to 
1694;  so  that  a  pipe  which  is  filled  with  water  at  212°, 
contains  1694  times  as  much  matter  as  one  of  equal  size 
filled  with  steam.  If  the  souice  of  heat  be  withdrawn 
from  the  steam  pipes,  the  temperature  will  soon  fall  below 
212°,  and  the  steam  immediately  in  contact  with  the  pipes 


88  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

will  condense ;  but  in  condensing,  the  steam  parts  with  its 
latent  heat;  and  this  heat,  in  passing  from  the  latent  to  the 
sensible  state,  will  again  raise  the  temperature  of  the  pipes. 
But  as  soon  as  they  are  a  second  time  cooled  down  below 
212°,  a  further  portion  of  steam  will  condense,  and  a  further 
quantity  of  latent  heat  will  pass  into  the  state  of  heat  of 
temperature;  and  so  on,  until  the  whole  quantity  of  latent 
heat  has  been  abstracted,  and  the  whole  of  the  steam  con- 
densed, in  which  state  it  will  possess  just  as  much  heating 
power  as  a  similar  bulk  of  water  at  the  like  temperature ; 
that  is,  the  same  as  a  quantity  of  water  occupying  tsVt 
part  of  the  space  which  the  steam  originally  did. 

"  The  specific  heat  of  uncondensed  steam,  compared  with 
water,  is  for  equal  weights  as  .8470  to  1;  but  the  latent 
heat  of  steam  being  estimated  at  1000°,  we  shall  find  that 
the  relative  heat  obtainable  from  equal  weights  of  con- 
densed steam  and  of  water,  reducing  both  from  the  temper- 
ature of  212°  to  60°,  to  be  as  7.425  to  1;  but  for  equal 
bulks,  it  will  be  as  1  to  228;  that  is,  bulk  for  bulk,  water 
will  give  out  228  times  as  much  heat  as  steam,  on  reducing 
both  from  the  temperature  of  212°  to  60°.  A  given  bulk 
of  steam  will,  therefore,  lose  as  much  of  its  heat  in  one 
minute,  as  the  same  bulk  of  water  will  lose  in  three  hours 
and  three-quarters." 

But  when  the  water  and  the  steam  are  both  contained 
in  iron  pipes  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  rate  of  cooling 
will  differ  from  this  ratio,  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
quantity  of  heat  contained  in  the  metal  than  in  the  steam. 
The  specific  heat  of  iron  being  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
water,  the  pipe  filled  with  water  will  contain  4.68  times  as 
much  heat  as  that  which  is  filled  with  steam ;  and  if  the 
latter  cools  down  to  60°  in  one  hour,  the  other  will  require 
about  four  hours  and  a  half  to  do  the  same.  There  are 
other  circumstances  to  be  noticed  hereafter,  which  cause  the 
hot  water  apparatus  to  be  six  or  eight  times  (instead  of  4|) 
more  efficient  as  a  source  of  warmth  than  steam. 


THE    AMERICAN    CwTTACE    3U1LDER.  89 

The  process  of  boiling  is  by  no  means  indispensable  to 
the  formatioD  and  escape  of  steam  or  vapor;  for  at  all  tem- 
peratures below  the  boiling  point,  vapor  is  formed  at  th<; 
surface  of  liquids,  and  escapes  therefrom  by  a  process 
called  spontaneous  evaporation.  The  difference  between  this 
process  and  ebullition  is  chiefly  this  :  when  a  liquid  boils, 
the  vapor  which  escapes  therefrom  constantly  maintains  the 
same  temperature,  provided  the  pressure  remain  the  same; 
but  evaporation  may  go  on  at  all  temperatures  and  pres- 
sures, the  quantity  of  liquid  evaporated  depending  on  the 
temperature  and  the  amount  of  surface  exposed;  or  the 
pressure  may  be  increased  or  diminished,  or  removed  alto- 
gether, without  affecting  the  result,  or  that  quantity  of 
vapor  which  can  exist  in  a  given  space  at  a  given  temperature ; 
the  saturation  of  that  space  requiring  a  longer  time  in 
proportion  to  the  density  of  the  air  contained  in  it,  while  in 
a  vacuum  the  saturation  is  instantaneous.  This  is  the  only 
difference. 

We  have  seen  that  the  pressure  or  elasticity  of  vapor  at 
212°  is  sufficient  to  support  a  column  of  mercury  30  inches 
high;  the  force  of  vapor  at  lower  temperatures  is  also 
measured  by  the  length  of  the  mercurial  column  which  it 
will  support.  Tapor  at  200°  will  support  23.64  inches  of 
mercury;  at  150°,  7.42  inches;  at  100°,  1.86  inches;  at  80°, 
1  inch;  at  60°,  .524  inch;  at  50,  .315  inch;  at  32°  .2  inch. 

The  amount  of  evaporation,  however,  is  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  motion  of  the  air,  which  carries  off  the 
vapor  from  the  surface  of  a  liquid  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  A 
strong  wind  will  cause  twice  as  much  vapor  to  be  discharged 
as  a  still  atmosphere.  Dalton  ascertained  the  number  of 
grains  weight  of  water  evaporated  per  minute  from  a  vessel, 
6  inches  in  diameter,  for  all  temperatures  between  20°  and 
212°,  when  the  air  was  still,  or  in  gentle  or  brisk  motion. 
When  the  water  was  at  212°,  the  quantity  evaporated  was 
120  grains  per  minute,  in  a  still  atmosphere;  154  grains  per 
minute,  with  a  gentle  motion  of  the  air,  and  189  grains  per 


90  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

minute  with  a  brisk  motion  of  the  air.  The  following  is  an 
extract  from  his  table  between  the  temperatures  of  40°  and 
60°:— 


TEJIP. 
FAHR. 

FORCE  OF  VAPOR  Hi 
INCHES  OF  MERCURY. 

EVAPORATING  FORCE  IX  GRAIXS 
OF  WATER. 

Still. 

Gentle. 

Brisk. 

40  deg 

- 

0.263 

1.05 

- 

1.35 

1.65 

42  " 

- 

.283 

1.13 

- 

1.45 

1.78 

44  •' 

- 

.305 

1.22 

- 

1.57 

1.92 

46  " 

- 

.327 

1.31 

- 

1.68 

2.06 

48  " 

- 

.351 

1.40 

- 

1.80 

2.20 

50  i( 

- 

.375 

1.50 

- 

1.92 

2.36 

52  " 

- 

.401 

1.60 

- 

2.06 

2.51 

54  " 

- 

.429 

1.71 

- 

2.20 

2.69 

56  " 

- 

.458 

1.83 

- 

2.35 

2.88 

58  " 

- 

.490 

1.96 

- 

2.52 

3.03 

60  " 

. 

.524 

2.10 

. 

2.70 

3.30 

The  amount  of  spontaneous  evaporation  is  also  greatly 
influenced  by  the  quantity  of  vapor  already  existing  in  the 
air.  In  order  to  find  this,  we  must  ascertain  the  dew  point 
of  the  air,  or  the  temperature  at  which  the  vapor  in  the  air 
begins  to  condense,  and  then,  by  referring  to  the  table,  the 
quantity  of  vapor  in  the  air  at  the  time  can  be  found,  and 
this,  deducted  from  the  quantity  shown  by  the  table  to  be 
given  off  at  the  ascertained  temperature  of  the  evaporating 
liquid,  will  give  the  quantity  of  water  that  will  be  evaporated 
per  minute.  In  finding  the  dew  point,  we  must  bring  some 
colder  body  into  the  air,  or  have  the  means  of  cooling  some 
body  to  such  a  point  as  shall  just  condense  the  vapor  of  the 
air  upon  its  surface.  Dr.  Daltox  used  a  very  thin  glass 
vessel,  into  which  he  poured  cold  water  from  a  well,  or 
cooled  down  the  water  by  adding  a  small  portion  of  a  freezing 
mixture.  If  the  vapor  was  instantly  condensed,  he  poured 
out  the  cold  water  and  used  some  a  little  warmer,  and  so 
on,  until  he  could  just  perceive  a  slight  dew  upon  the  sur- 
face. The  temperature  at  which  this  took  place,  was  the 
dew  point.  In  Daxiell's  hygrometer,  the  cold  is  produced 
by  the  evaparation  of  ether.  Xow,  suppose  the  dew  point 
of  the  air  to  be  40°,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  of 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    UCil.DER  91 

the  evaporating  liquid  to  be  60°,  with  a  still  atmosphere, 
the  vapor  in  the  air,  as  shown  by  the  table  at  40°,  is  1.05 
grains;  which  substracted  from  that  at  G0°,  or  2.10,  gives 
1.5  grains  per  minute  as  the  quantity  of  vapor  given  off 
from  a  surface  six  inches  in  diameter. 

During  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  wet  surfaces,  a 
considerable  degree  of  cold  is  produced  by  the  quantity  of 
heat  rendered  latent  by  the  formation  of  the  vapor,  and  the 
heat  is  mostly  derived  from  the  liquid  itself,  or  the  surface 
containing  it.  By  proper  contrivances,  water  may  be  frozen, 
in  consequence  of  the  abstraction  of  heat  during  the  rapid 
formation  of  vapor.  When  a  person  takes  cold  from  wearing 
wet  clothes,  the  vapor  from  the  wet  clothes  obtains  its  heat 
from  his  body,  and  the  chilling  sensation  is  often  the  greater 
the  wanner  the  air.  A  person  with  damp  clothes,  entering 
a  room  filled  with  hot,  dry  air,  is  very  likely  to  take  cold, 
on  account  of  the  powerful  effect  of  warm  air  in  abstracting 
moisture. 

In  a  badly  ventilated  room,  the  moisture  from  the  breath 
of  the  inmates,  and  from  the  combustion  of  lamps  and 
candles,  accumulates  nearly  to  the  point  of  saturation. 
This  is  well  shown  by  an  experiment  of  the  late  Professor 
Daniell.  The  temperature  of  a  room  being  45°,  the  dew- 
point  was  39°:  a  fire  was  then  lighted  in  it,  the  door  and 
window  shut,  and  no  air  was  allowed  to  enter;  the  thermo- 
meter rose  to  55°,  but  the  point  of  condensation  remained 
the  same.  A  party  of  eight  persons  afterwards  occupied 
the  room  for  several  hours,  and  the  fire  was  kept  up;  the 
temperature  rose  to  58°,  and  the  point  of  condensation  rose 
to  52°.  Now,  if  this  room  had  been  properly  ventilated, 
the  vapor  would  have  been  removed  as  it  was  formed,  ami 
with  it  the  effluvia  and  impure  air. 

In  Normandy;  where  the  cold  of  winter  is  severe,  and 
fuel  expensive,  the  lace-makers,  in  order  to  keep  themselves 
warm,  and  at  the  same  time  to  save  fuel,  agree  with  some 
farmer  who  has  cows  in  winter  quarters,  to  rent  the  close 


92  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

sheds.  The  cows  are  tethered  in  a  row  on  one  side  of  the 
shed,  and  the  lace-makers  sit  cross-legged  on  the  ground  on 
the  other  side,  with  their  feet  buried  in  straw.  The  cattle, 
being  out  in  the  fields  by  day,  the  poor  women  work  all 
night  for  the  sake  of  the  steaming  warmth  arising  from  the 
animals. 

The  Laplander,  during  eight  months  of  the  year,  inhabits 
a  little  hut  with  a  small  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  roof  for 
the  admission  of  light  and  the  escape  of  smoke,  and  obtains 
heat  from  a  smoky  lamp  of  putrid  oil,  as  the  Esquimaux  does 
in  his  hut  of  snow.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement  is,  that 
the  whole  nation  of  Laplanders  are  afflicted  with  blear 
eyes.  The  Greeulander,  indeed,  builds  a  large  hut,  and 
contrives  it  better,  but  it  is  often  occupied  by  half  a  dozen 
families,  eacli  having  a  lamp  for  warmth  and  for  cooking, 
and  the  effect  of  this  arrangement,  says  Egede,  "  is  to  cre- 
ate such  a  smell,  that  it  strikes  one  not  accustomed  to  it  to 
the  very  heart." 

The  method  of  obtaining  warmth  in  Persia,  is  scarcely 
an  improvement  on  the  smoky  lamp  of  the  Laplanders  and 
Greenlanders.  A  large  jar,  called  a  kourcy,  is  sunk  in  the 
earthen  floor,  generally  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  This  is 
filled  with  wood,  dung,  or  other  combustible;  and  when  it 
is  sufficiently  charred,  the  mouth  of  the  vessel  is  shut  in 
with  a  square  wooden  frame,  shaped  like  a  low  table,  and 
the  whole  is  then  covered  with  a  thick-wadded  quilt,  under 
which  the  family,  ranged  around,  place  their  knees,  to  allow 
the  hot  vapor  to  insinuate  itself  into  the  folds  of  their  cloth- 
ing; or,  when  they  desire  more  warmth,  they  recline  with  the 
quilt  drawn  up  to  their  chins.  The  immoveable  positiou 
necessary  for  receiving  the  full  benefit  of  the  glowing 
embers  is  inconvenient;  and  the  effluvia  from  the  fuel  is  nau- 
seous and  deleterious.  Headache  is  always  produced,  and, 
from  the  number  who  sleep  entirely  under  the  quilt  at  night, 
suffocation  is  not  an  uncommon  accident.  The  kourcy  also 
serves  for  an  oven,  and  the  pot  is  boiled  ou  its  embers.   This 


TIH-:    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  93 

rode  and  unwholesome  method  is  adopted  in  tne  noblest 
mansions  of  the  cities,  as  well  as  in  the  dwellings  of  the 
poorer  classes;  only,  in  the  former,  a  more  agreeable  fuel  is 
burnt,  and  the  ladies  sit  from  morning  till  night  under  rich 
draperies  spread  over  the  wooden  cover,  endeavoring  to 
rcome  the  soporific  influence  of  the  foul  air  by  occasional 
cups  of  coffee,  or  the  delightful  fumes  of  the  kalioum. 

The  burning  of  fuel  in  the  midst  of  an  apartment,  is  by 
no  means  confined  to  nations  whom  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
calling  barbarous  and  uncivilized.  In  Seville  and  other  parts 
of  Spain,  preparations  for  winter  are  made  about  the  mid- 
dle of  October.  The  lower  summer  apartments  are  stripped 
of  their  furniture,  and  the  chairs  and  tables  are  removed  to 
other  rooms  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  court.  The  brick 
floors  are  covered  with  thicker  mats  than  those  used  in  the 
warm  season.  A  flat  and  open  brass  pan,  about  two  feet 
in  diameter,  raised  a  few  inches  from  the  ground  by  a  round 
wooden  frame,  on  which  those  who  sit  near  it  may  rest  their 
feet,  is  used  to  burn  a  sort  of  charcoal,  made  of  brushwood, 
called  cisro.  The  carbonic  acid  vapor  is  most  injurious  to 
health;  but  such  is  the  effect  of  habit,  that  the  natives  are 
seldom  aware  of  the  inconveniences  arising  from  the  stifling 
fumes  of  their  braziers. 

The  charcoal  brazier  is  a  very  ancient  method  of  warming 
an  apartment;  the  Greeks  and  other  nations  commonly  used 
it,  and  sought  to  correct  the  deleterious  nature  of  the  fumes, 
by  burning  costly  odorous  gums,  spices  and  woods. 

The  braziers  of  the  Romans  were  elegant  bronze  tripods, 
supported  by  satyrs  and  sphinxes,  with  a  round  dish  above 
for  the  fire,  and  a  small  vase  below  to  hold  perfumes.  A 
kind  of  close  stove  was  also  used  ;  but,  in  either  case,  the 
smoke  was  so  considerable,  that  the  winter  rooms  were  dif- 
ferently furnished  from  those  appropriated  to  summer  use. 
The  former  had  plain  cornices  ami  no  carved  work  or  mould- 
ings, so  that  the  soot  might  be  easily  cleared  away.  In 
order    to   prevent   the  wood  from  smoking,   the  hark  was 


94  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

peeled  off,  and  the  wood  kept  long  in  water,  and  then  dried 
and  anointed  with  oil.  It  is  not,  however,  evident  how  this 
plan  should  prevent  the  smoke  of  the  burning  fuel. 

The  great  convenience  of  the  brazier,  and  the  apparent 
cleanliness  of  the  fuel,  are  arguments  in  favor  of  its  con- 
tinued use  even  in  our  own  day.  A  visitor  to  some  of  the  Eng- 
lish cathedrals,  in  winter,  during  the  time  of  divine  service, 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  for  example,  will  be  astonished  to  see 
on  the  floor  of  the  choir  two  or  three  enormous  braziers  full 
of  live  charcoal;  a  peculiar  odor  arises  from  them,  and  per- 
vades the  building;  a  pleasing  sensation  creeps  over  the 
whole  frame,  and  the  tendency  to  sleep  is  often  irresistible; 
persons  troubled  with  cough  cease  to  cough,  and  an  unusual 
effort  is  required  when  the  service  is  over,  to  rise  and  quit 
the  building.  The  enormous  size  of  the  enclosure  prevents 
any  fatal  effects  from  the  abundant  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid,  nor  have  we  ever  heard  of  any  well-authenticated  case 
of  injury  to  any  one;  but  a  very  little  consideration  will 
show  that,  in  a  smaller  space,  such  as  a  room,  this  primitive 
method  of  obtaining  warmth  might  lead  to  dangerous  con- 
sequences. A  single  pound  weight  of  charcoal  consumes  in 
burning  21fi-0lbs.  weight  of  oxygen,  which  is  the  quantity 
contained  in  between  13  or  141bs  of  atmospheric  air.  Now,  a 
good-sized  room,  20  feet  by  13  feet,  and  10  feet  high,  does  not 
contain  more  than  about  200  pounds  weight  of  air,  and  as 
the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  charcoal  produces  SjVbs. 
of  carbonic  acid,  which,  by  mingling  with  the  rest  of  the  aii 
of  the  apartment,  renders  at  least  3 Gibs,  weight  of  air  unfit 
for  respiration—  making  in  all  about  501bs.  weight  of  air — it 
follows  that,  in  -such  a  room,  the  air  will  require,  for  healthy 
respiration,  to  be  renewed  many  times  an  hour. 

In  addition  to  the  brazier,  the  ancient  Romans  were 
acquainted  with  flues  for  warming  rooms  and  buildings;  but 
as  these  were  costly  contrivances,  their  use  was  confined  to 
the  wealthy.  These  flues,  forming  what  was  called  the 
hypJcaustum!  were  conducted  below  the  floor  of  the  room 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  95 

intended  to  be  warmed.  The.  hypoeausts  were  of  two 
kinds — the  first,  constructed  with  flues  running  under  the 
floor,  and  heated  from  a  fire-place  on  the  outside  of  the 
building;  and  the  second  kind  formed  like  a  low  chamber, 
having  its  ceiling  supported  by  small  pillars  or  by  dwarf 
walls,  and  sometimes  with  flues  leading  from  them  to  other 
apartments. 

The  hypocaustrum  is  well  known  to  the  Chinese,  and  is 
in  common  use  about  Pekin,  where  the  winter  climate  is 
very  severe.     The  houses  of  the  better  class  are  built  with 
double  walls,  and  with  hollow  flues  extending  beneath  the 
floors.     The   fire-place   is  constructed   either   against   the 
exterior  wall  of  the  apartment  to  be  heated,  or  in  an  inferior 
room  adjoining;  by  which  means  the  annoyance  from  dust 
and  smoke  are  avoided,   as  well  as  the  inconvenience  of 
servants  entering  the  room  to  attend  to  the  fire.     From  the 
fire-chamber  proceeds  a  main  flue,  which  is  connected  with 
the  horizontal  flue.     From  this  another  flue  proceeds  at 
right  angles  to  about  three-fourths  of  the  extent  of  the 
room;   these   flues   are   perforated   with   holes   at    proper 
distances,  in  order  to  give  out  the   smoke  and  heated  air 
equally  over  the  whole  area  of  the  flooring.   Two  horizontal 
flues  are  built  in  or  attached  to  the  side  walls,  in  order  to 
carry  off  the  smoke  into  the  external  air.     The  flooring  of 
the  apartment  consists  of  flat  tiles  or  flag-stones,  neatly 
embedded  in  cement,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
smoke  or  heated  air  from  the  flues  beneath  into  the  room. 
These  stones  or  paving-tiles,  resting  on  blocks  of  stone  or 
bricks,  may  be  of  any  thickness  required  for  the  extent  of 
the  air-flues  which  are  employed.     By  this  contrivance,  the 
heat,  coming  in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  floor,  is 
uniformly   diffused  over  the  apartment.     The  floors,  also, 
being  very  imperfect  conductors  of  heat,  being  once  suffi- 
ciently heated  by  the  flues,  and  the  apertures  of  the  main 
flues  outside   being   stopped,    retain   a   sufficient  heat  for 
domestic  comfort  during  many  hours.     The  paving-tiles  of 


96  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 

the  rooms  are  often  made  of  ornamental  porcelain  ware  of 
considerable  thickness.  Even  the  benches  and  sleeping- 
places  are  warmed  by  this  contrivance.  These  are  built 
hollow,  with  bricks,  in  the  form  of  a  square  bench  or  oblong 
bed,  and  communicating  with  the  flues,  or  having  their  own 
separate  flue,  are  thus  heated.  Those  who  dislike  lying  on 
the  hot  bricks,  or  on  the  felt  mat  that  is  spread  over  them, 
suspend  from  the  ceiling,  over  the  heated  bench,  a  kind  of 
hammock,  made  of  coarse  cloth;  and  thus  they  enjoy 
warmth  and  repose.  In  the  morning,  the  bed-places  are 
covered  with  carpets  and  mats,  on  which  the  inmates  of  the 
house  sit. 

The  ingenious  economy  of  the  Chinese  (from  which  we 
might  often  borrow  a  useful  lesson),  prevents  the  flues  from 
becoming  choked  by  soot.  Instead  of  employing  pit-coal 
of  good  quality,  they  make  use  of  the  inferior  or  small  refuse 
coal  for  this  purpose,  and  mix  it  with  a  compost  of  clay, 
earth, 'cow-dung,  or  any  refuse  vegetable  matter;  and  then 
form  it  into  balls,  which  are  dried  in  the  sun  or  open  air. 
This  method  is  not  adopted  on  account  of  any  scarcity  of 
fuel,  for  coal  is  abundant  in  China;  but  the  Chinese  know 
how  to  take  care  of  it,  They  find  that  their  fire-balls, 
during  combustion,  give  out  very  little  smoke;  and  they  are 
largely  manufactured  in  the  coal  districts,  and  distributed 
by  canal  carriage  over  a  large  portion  of  the  empire. 

In  the  inferior  class  of  houses,  instead  of  having  the  fire 
outside  the  house  or  room  to  be  heated,  it  is  built  in  the 
corner  of  the  dwelling-room.  A  pit  is  dug  for  the  body  of 
the  fire-chamber  and  draught-hole;  and  the  top,  or  head  of 
the  stove,  is  used  for  the  different  operations  of  cooking. 

That  no  portion  of  heat  may  be  lost,  or  escape  into  the 
room  directly  from  the  fire,  beyond  what  is  necessary  to 
maintain  a  given  temperature,  vessels  of  water  are  placed 
on  the  head  of  the  stove,  and  thus  the  heat,  which  would 
otherwise  be  lost,  is  absorbed  and  economized;  while  it 
affords,  by  its  evaporation,  the  necessary  supply  of  moisture 


I 


^W**~   • 


Till:    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  97 

to  preserve  the  atmosphere  of  the  room  in  a  healthy  con- 
on  as  to  moisture. 

The  Ci::  all  a  stove  which  is  heated  by  a  furnace, a 

hang;  the  ti-kang  is  a  furnace  of  which  the  flue  runs  under 
the  floor  or  pavement  of  a  room;  and  the  Jcao-hang  is  that 
used  for  heating  benches  and  beds.  There  is  yet  a  third 
variety,  tovg-kang,  which  is  formed  in  the  wall,  and  this 
differs  from  the  ti-J:ang  only  in  being  perpendicular  instead 
of  horizontal.  In  the  tong-kang,  the  heating-flue  is  carried 
along  the  floor,  with  openings  from  it,  at  which  the  heated 
air  and  smoke  ascends  into  the  spaces  of  a  hollow  wall. 

The  necessity  for  providing  for  the  exit  of  smoke  seems 
to  have  caused  the  invention  of  the  chimney. 

Chimneys  appear  to  have  been  common  in  Venice  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  An  inscription  over 
the  gate  of  the  school  of  Santa  Maria  della  Carita  states, 
that  in  1347,  a  great  many  chimneys  were  thrown  down  by 
an  earthquake — a  fact  which  is  confirmed  by  John  Yillaxi, 
who  refers  the  event  to  the  evening  of  the  25th  of  January. 
Chimneys  had  also  been  in  use  at  Padua  before  1368,  for 
in  that  year  Galeazo  Gataro  relates,  that  Francisco  da 
Carraro,  lord  of  Padua,  came  to  Rome,  and  finding  no 
chimneys  in  the  inn  where  he  lodged,  (because  at  that  time 
fire  was  kindled  in  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,)  he  caused 
two  chimneys,  like  those  that  had  been  long  used  in  Padua, 
to  be  constructed  by  the  work-people  he  had  brought  with 
him.  Over  these  chimneys — the  first  ever  seen  in  Rome — he 
affixed  his  arms,  which  were  remaining  in  the  time  of  Ga- 
taro. Winwall  House,  in  Norfolk,  which  has  been  described 
as  the  most  ancient  and  perfect  specimen  of  Norman 
domestic  architecture  in  the  kingdom,  has  not  only  recessed 
hearths,  but  flues  rising  from  them,  carried  up  in  the  exter- 
nal and  internal  walls.  Now,  if  Winwall  House  really  be 
an  Anglo-Norman  edifice,  its  chimneys  must  have  been  built 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and,  consequently,  the  claim  of  the 

Italians  to  the  invention  cannot  be  supported.     The  chini- 

5 


(J3  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

neys  at  Kenilworth  and  Conway  wore  also  probably  erected 
anterior  to  the  date  of  those  on  which  the  Italians  rest 
their  claim.  Leland,  also,  in  his  account  of  Bolton  Castle, 
which  he  says  was  "  finiched  or  Kynge  Puchard  the  2  dyed," 
notices  the  chimneys.  "  One  thynge  I  muche  notyd  in  the 
hawle  of  Bolton,  how  chimeneys  were  conveyed  by  tun- 
nells  made  on  the  syds  of  the  walls  betwyxt  the  lights  in 
the  hawle,  and  by  this  means  and  by  no  covers,  is  the  smoke 
of  the  harthe  in  the  hawle  wonder  strangely  conveyed." 

In  all  places  where  wood  exists  in  abundance,  coal  is  not 
sought  after  for  the  purposes  of  domestic  fuel.  To  show 
the  objections  raised  to  everything  new,  it  may  be  stated, 
that  when  coal  was  first  generally  used  in  England,  it 
was  supposed  that  the  fumes  of  coal  had  a  peculiarly  cor- 
rupting effect  upon  the  air,  and  were  most  injurious  to 
health.  Its  value,  was  appreciated  by  brewers,  dyers,  smiths, 
and  others,  whose  occupations  lead  to  the  consumption  of  a 
large  quantity  of  fuel,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  coal  was  imported  into  London  from  Newcastle,  for 
the  use  of  those  trades.  In  1308,  however,  parliament  peti- 
tioned the  king  to  prohibit  the  use  of  the  noxious  fuel  in  the 
city.  A  proclamation  was  accordingly  issued,  prohibiting 
the  use  of  coal;  and  as  this  failed  in  its  effect,  a  commission 
was  issued  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  who  burned  sea- 
coal  within  the  city  and  its  neighborhood,  and  to  punish 
them  by  fine  for  the  first  offence,  and  by  the  demolition  of 
their  furnaces  if  they  persisted.  But  even  these  severe  pro- 
ceedings failed  to  put  down  the  nuisance.  A  law  was 
therefore  passed,  making  the  burning  of  sea-coal  within  the 
city  a  capital  offence,  and  permitting  its  use  only  in  the 
forges  of  the  neighborhood.  In  the  reign  of  the  first  Ed- 
ward, a  man  was  tried,  convicted,  and  executed,  for  burning 
sea-coal  in  London.  Even  in  districts  where  coal  abounded, 
it  was  not  used  as  a  domestic  fuel;  for  we  read  that  in  1349, 
in  the  religious  house  at  "Whalley,  peat,  with  a  very  little 
wood,  was  the  only  fuel  used. 


TDK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    Lit'II.DER.  99 

So  deeply  rooted  was  the  prejudice  against  coal,  that  it 
was  not  until  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century 
that  its  use  became  more  general.  Ladies  had  an  idea  that 
a  coal  fire  injured  their  complexions,  and  they  would  not 
even  enter  a  house  or  room  where  the  obnoxious  fuel  was 
used;  nor  would  they  even  partake  of  meat  which  had  been 
roasted  at  a  coal  fire.  When  Bex  Joxso.v  had  to  entertain 
a  party  of  guests  at  his  house,  he  wanned  his  room  with  a 
charcoal  lire;  but,  on  ordinary  occasions,  he  used  coal;  for 
we  find  that,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  his  flue  caught  fire 
from  an  accumulation  of  soot. 

There  was,  doubtless,  good  reason  for  the  objections  of 
our  ancestors  to  the  use  of  sea-coal,  for  the  chimney  fire- 
places were  usually  made  in  the  form  of  a  large  square 
recess,  and  the  breast  of  the  chimney  was  of  the  same  size 
as  the  recess  itself.  In  order  to  rid  sea-coal  of  its  noxious 
sulphurious  vapor,  Sir  John  Racket  and  Octavics  de  Strada 
proposed,  in  1G26,  to  convert  the  coal  into  coke,  and  thus 
make  it  as  agreeable  a  fuel  for  chambers  as  wood  and  char- 
coal. A  patent  was  obtaiued  for  the  purpose,  but  the  spe- 
culation did  not  succeed,  as  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  coke 
was  found  to  be  nearly  as  unpleasant  as  that  from  coal. 

About  this  time,  a  great  improvement  was  made  in  France 
in  fire-places.  Louis  Savot,  in  his  Treatise  on  Architecture, 
remarks  that  large  rooms  only  are  free  from  smoke,  and  that 
when  fires  are  made  in  small  apartments,  a  door  or  a  win- 
dow had  to  be  left  open,  or  else  the  air  came  down  the  wide 
flue,  and  drove  the  smoke  into  the  room.  To  correct  this 
defect,  he  raised  the  hearth  about  four  inches,  and  lowered 
the  mantel  so  as  to  make  the  opening  of  the  fire-place  about 
three  feet  high.  The  width  between  the  jambs  was  reduced 
to  three  feet;  the  jambs  from  the  mantel  were  to  be  carried 
up  sloping  to  the  waist,  or  where  the  flue  begins  to  be  of 
uniform  width,  and  the  opening  of  the  fire-place  was  formed 
like  an  arch.  But,  where  the  fire-place  could  not  be  con- 
veniently altered,  Savot  perforated  with  small  holes  a  plate 


100  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  iron,  whose  width  and  length  was  nearly  equal  to  the 
hearth,  and  this  was  fixed  three  inches  above  the  tiles  of  the 
common  hearth.  On  this  perforated  plate  he  placed  a  grille 
de  fer  of  the  same  length  as  the  billets  to  be  burned,  and  raised 
niue  inches  above  the  plate  ;  the  wood  was  placed  on  the 
grate,  the  charcoal  on  the  perforated  plate,  and  the  hearth 
received  the  ashes.  The  air,  rising  through  the  small  hole*, 
made  the  charcoal  burn  briskly,  and  this  so  much  assisted  the 
burning  of  the  wood,  that  a  rapid  draught  up  the  chimney 
was  established,  and  smoke  prevented. 

About  the  year   1658,  the  project  for   burning  coke, 
instead  of  coal,   was  revived  by   Sir  Jonx  AVixter,  who 
invented  an  improved  fire-place  for  the  purpose.     The  cra- 
dle, or  fire-cage,  was  placed  on  a  box  about  eleven  inches 
high,  in  the  front  of  which  was  an  opening,  fitted  with  a 
door,  which  was  always  kept  closed,  except  when  the  ashes 
were  removed.     A  pipe,  inserted  into  the  side  of  the  box, 
communicated  with  the  external  air,  at  a  level  of  two  or 
three  feet  below  the  bottom  bars  of  the  fire-cage.    This  pipe 
could  be  closed  at  pleasure  by  a  valve.     When  the  coke,  or 
charcked  coal  in  the  fire-cage  did  not  burn  well,  the  valve 
was  opened,  and  the  air  from  the  outside  rushed  in  a  strong 
current  into  the  box,  and,  by  its  powerful  blast,  soon  roused 
up  the  fire;  the  valve  was  then  closed,  and  all  communica- 
tion with  the  external  air  was  thus  cut  off.     The  fine  was 
closed  with  an  iron  plate  or  register,  that  moved  on  a  hinge. 
It  had  an  opening,  8  inches  square,  for  carrying  the  smoke 
into  the  chimney,  and  this  was  found  large  enough  for  a  fire- 
place of  any  dimensions.     This  ingenious  coutrivauce  does 
not  seem   to   have   succeeded,  although   both  it  and  the 
arrangement  described  by  Savot  have,  with  slight  variations, 
been  brought  forward  several  times  within  the  last  three- 
quarters  of  a  century,  and  patented  as  notable  inventions.  ( 
In  1678,  Prince  Rupert  invented  a  fire-place,  so  contrived 
that  the  draught  took  a  downward  direction  before  entering 
the  flue 


THE    AMERICAS    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  101 

"The  fire-cloth,"  says  Mr.  Bbrnan,  "was  a  common 
appendage  to  a  fire-place,  particularly  where  wood  was 
burned,  for  then  the  Que  was  large,  the  hearth  wide  and 
low,  and  the  mantel  high;  when  the  chimney  smoked,  in 
certain  winds  only,  the  cloth  was  suspended  from  each 
corner  of  the  mantel-piece.  But  when  the  disease  was 
unremitting,  the  curtain  was  fixed  by  rings,  running  on 
a  rod  that  went  across  the  fire-place.  When  not  used, 
it  was  drawn  to  one  side,  like  the  curtain  of  a  cottage 
window.  Very  often  the  fire-cloth  was  contrived  to  be  drawn 
up  like  a  modern  Venetian  blind,  and  made  so  deep,  as  to 
reach  from  the  mantel  to  the  hearth,  and  serve  the  office  of 
a  fire-board,  when  there  was  no  fire  in  the  yawning  chimney. 
The  first  variety  of  smoke-cloth  was  seldom  more  than 
fifteen  inches  deep,  and  was  frequently  made  of  painted 
leather;  but  in  good  houses,  the  suspended  fire-cloths  were 
usually  of  damask  and  tapestry.  None  of  these  contriv- 
ances are  yet  extinct." 

In  1680,  a  stove  was  exhibited  at  the  fair  of  St. 
Gerinains,  near  Paris,  in  which  the  smoke  not  only 
descended,  but  was  also  consumed.  It  is  formed  of  ham- 
mered iron,  and  stands  on  the  floor  of  the  room.  The  fuel, 
wood,  or  coal,  is  contained  in  a  vase,  with  a  grating  at  the 
bottom,  and  this  vase  is  placed  on  a  box  or  cylinder,  from 
which  a  pipe  is  carried  into  a  flue,  which  has  no  communi- 
cation with  the  hearth  recess,  nor  with  the  air,  except  at 
the  top,  above  the  roof.  The  vase  being  filled  with  fuel, 
some  dry  brushwood  is  placed  upon  it.  The  upper  part  of 
the  pipe  is  then  heated  by  a  lamp,  or  hot  iron,  in  order  to 
establish' a  current  of  air  from  the  cylinder,  which  current 
pa-ses  down  through  the  fuel  in  the  vase.  A  piece  of 
lighted  paper  is  then  placed  on  the  brushwood,  and  the 
downward  current  carries  the  flame  downwards,  first 
igniting  the  wood  and  then  the  coals,  and  consuming  the 
smoke  in  descending.  The  products  of  combustion  thus 
carried  into  the   cylinder,  rise  through   the  pipe  into  the 


102  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

chimney.  The  descending  current  may  be  made  evident  by 
holding  a  flame  over  the  vase,  and  it  will  be  drawn  down- 
wards. Justel,  who  described  this  arrangement  to  the 
Royal  Society  in  1681,  says,  that  "the  most  fceted  things, 
matters  which  stink  abominably  when  taken  out  of  the  fire, 
in  this  engine  make  no  ill  scent;  neither  do  red-herrings 
broiled  thereon.  On  the  other  hand,  all  perfumes  are  lost, 
and  incense  makes  no  smell  at  all  when  burned  therein." 
An  improved  edition  of  this  stove  was  made  by  Dr. 
Franklin. 

A  very  economical  method  of  heating  two  rooms  by  one 
fire  is  described  by  Savot.  A  plate  of  iron  is  made  to  sepa- 
rate the  fire-places  of  the  two  adjacent  rooms.  A  fire  made 
on  the  hearth  heats  the  plate,  and  this,  in  its  turn,  by  its 
radiation,  warms  the  air  in  the  adjacent  room,  as  effectually 
as  a  stove  would  do,  provided  its  flue  is  properly  closed. 
Or  if  the  second  room  have  no  chimney,  it  may  still  be 
warmed  by  making  an  opening  in  the  wall,  at  the  back  of 
the  fire-place,  and  closing  it  with  an  iron  plate.  When  Dr. 
Franklin  was  in  Paris,  he  saw  an  example  of  this  contriv- 
ance, and  estimated  it  highly. 

In  all  these  early  contrivances  there  is  much  ingenuity, 
and  we  bring  them  forward  thus  prominently,  because  they 
are  really  the  legitimate  ancestors  of  many  reputed  modern 
inventions,  whose  authors  are  either  ignorant  of,  or  have  failed 
to  acknowledge,  their  legitimate  descent  therefrom.  Invent- 
ors would  often  be  spared  much  anxiety  and  expense,  if  they 
would  condescend  to  study  the  subject  to  which  their  inven- 
tion refers,  before  they  introduce  to  the  public  a  contriv- 
ance which  may  have  been  as  well  if  not  better  done  a  long 
time  before.  Inventions,  whether  in  the  fine  arts,  or  in  the 
useful  arts,  require  genius  often  of  a  high  order;  and 
although  it  is  not  expected  that  every  inventor  should  have 
the  genius  of  Watt,  it  is  at  least  required  that  they  should 
possess  some  of  his  method  of  patient  research. 

But  there  is  one  writer  whose  inventions  have  especially 


TIIK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  103 

pencil  as  the  typo  of  many  a  modern  fire-place,  and  at  tho 
time  of  its  publication  in  1713,  showed  a  great  and  sudden 
advance  in  the  art  of  wanning  apartments.  The  author  of 
the  treatise  referred  to  is  no  less  a  man  than  the  Cardinal 
Polignac,  who,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Gauger,  pub- 
lished a  treatise,  entitled  "  La  Mechanique  du  Feu,  on  VArt 
d'en  ougmenter  ks  effcts  et  (Pen  diminuer la  depensc,  contcnant 
le  Trailc  de  JYoucelles  Chcminecs  qui  ecJiauffent  plus  que  les 
Chcminecs  ordinaries,  ct  qui  nc  sont  point  swjettes  a  fumer? 
This  treatise  was  reprinted  at  Amsterdam  iu  1714,  and  a 
translation  of  it,  by  Dr.  Desaugcliers  (from  which  we  are 
about  to  quote),  was  published  in  London  in  1716. 

In  the  preface,  the  author  has  some  sensible  observations 
ou  the  subject  of  warming  and  ventilation.  After  remark- 
ing that  persons  who  judge  of  the  value  of  machines  by 
their  complication,  will  not  find  his  inventions  to  their  taste. 
lie  bestows  a  complaint  on  those  who  estimate  "  such  devices 
from  the  simplicity  of  their  construction,  and  the  facility  of 
their  execution,"  and  then  proceeds  thus: — "  A  plate  of 
iron  or  copper  bowed  or  bended  after  such  a  manner  as  is 
not  at  all  disagreeable  to  the  sight;  a  void  behind,  divided 
by  certain  small  iron  bands  or  partition  plates,  forming  sev- 
eral spaces  that  have  communication  one  with  another;  a 
little  vent-hole  in  the  middle  of  the  hearth,  a  register  plate 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  funnel:  and  for  some  shafts,  a 
capital  on  the  top,  make  up  the  whole  construction  and 
v  orkmanship  of  our  modern  chimney.  Now,  can  there  be 
anything  more  simple  or  plain,  or  more  easy  to  execute  ?" 

"  To  be  able  to  kindle  a  fire  speedily  and  make  it,  if  you 
please,  flame  continually,  whatever  wood  is  burning,  without 
the  use  of  bellows;  to  give  heat  to  a  spacious  room,  and 
even  to  another  adjoining,  with  a  little  fire;  to  warm  one's 
self  at  the  same  time  on  all  sides,  be  the  weather  ever  so 
cold,  without  scorching;  to  breathe  a  pure  air,  always  fresh, 
and  to  such  a  degree  of  warmth  as  is  thought  fit;  to  be 
never  annoyed  with  smoke  in  one's  apartment,  nor  have  any 


104  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

moisture  therein;  to  quench  by  one's  self,  and  in  an  instant, 
any  fire  that  may  catch  in  the  funnel  of  a  chimney;  all  these 
are  but  a  few  of  the  effects  and  properties  of  these  wonder- 
ful machines,  notwithstanding  their  apparent  simplicity. 
Since  I  used  this  sort  of  chimney,  I  have  not  been  troubled 
one  moment  with  smoke,  in  a  lodging  which  it  rendered 
before  untenable  as  soon  as  a  fire  was  lighted.  I  have  always 
inhaled,  even  during  the  sharpest  seasons,  a  fresh  air  like 
that  of  the  spring.  In  IT 09,  water  that  froze  hard  every- 
where else  very  near  the  hearth,  did  not  congeal  at  night 
in  my  chamber,  though  the  fire  was  put  out  before  midnight ; 
and  all  that  was  brought  thither  in  the  day  soon  thawed; 
neither  did  I  ever  perceive  the  least  moisture  in  winter,  not 
even  during  thaws." 

The  treatise  opens  with  the  following  remark: — "It 
seems  that  those  who  have  hitherto  built  or  caused  chimneys 
to  be  erected,  have  only  takeu  care  to  contrive  in  the 
chambers  certain  places  where  wood  may  be  burnt,  without 
making  a  due  reflection  that  the  wood  in  burning  ought  to 
warm  those  chambers,  and  the  persons  who  are  in  them;  at 
least,  it  is  certain  that  but  a  very  little  heat  is  felt  of  the 
fire  made  in  the  ordinary  chimneys,  and  that  they  might  be 
ordered  so  as  to  send  forth  a  great  deal  more,  only  by 
changing  the  disposition  of  their  jambs  and  wings." 

A  number  of  complicated  varieties  of  fire-place  are 
described  in  this  treatise,  all  of  wdiich  are  furnished  with  par- 
abolic jambs  and  the  soufflet;  but  the  back,  the  jambs,  the 
hearth,  and  the  mantel,  were  also  made  hollow,  for  the 
purpose  of  pouring  a  copious  supply  of  heated  air  into  the 
apartment.  These  hollow  spaces,  named  caliducts  or  mean- 
ders, are  in  one  arrangement  formed  by  perpendicular  divi- 
sions. In  another  variety  they  are  horizontal.  In  this 
variety  the  hearth  is  also  hollowed  out,  and  divided  into  a 
series  of  square  spaces. 

A  simple,  but  highly  ingenious  grate,  in  which  the  burn- 
ing fuel  was  made  to  consume  its  own  smoke,  was  one  of  the 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDBB.  105 

many  original  contrivances  of  Frakkxin.  It  consisted  of  a 
circular  lire-cage,  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  from  G  to  8 
inches  wide  from  front  to  hack.  The  hack  is  of  plate-iron, 
and  the  front  filled  with  bars,  of  which  the  three  middle  arc 
fixed  and  the  top  and  bottom  moveable,  and  either  one  may 
be  drawn  out  for  the  purpose  of  filling  the  grate  with  fuel. 
The  fire-cage  turns  upon  axes,  supported  by  a  crochet,  fixed 
on  a  stem,  which  revolves  upon  a  pivot  fixed  to  the  hearth. 
The  fire  is  lighted  by  withdrawing  the  upper  bar  and  then 
placing  \vood  and  coals  in  the  cage,  as  in  a  common  grate; 
the  bar  is  then  replaced.  So,  also,  in  adding  fresh  fuel,  the 
upper  bar  is  removed  and  then  replaced.  AVhen  the  grate 
is  first  lighted,  a  quantity  of  thick  smoke  is  emitted  by  the 
fuel;  but,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  burn  well,  the  cage  is 
turned  round  on  its  axes,  so  that  the  burning  coals  at  the 
bottom  shall  occupy  a  position  at  the  top.  The  whole  is 
then  turned  round  on  the  pivot,  so  as  to  bring  the  bars 
again  in  front;  by  this  arrangement  the  fresh  coals  below 
the  lighted  fuel  will  gradually  ignite,  and  their  smoke, 
having  to  pass  through  the  fire  above  them,  will  be  entirely 
consumed.  In  this  way  the  combustion  is  perfect,  or  nearly 
so,  and  this  economy  of  fuel  is  accompanied  by  a  much 
greater  heating  effect;  little  or  no  soot  is  deposited,  for  all 
the  combustible  matter  of  the  fuel  is  converted  into  heat. 
For  want  of  some  such  contrivance,  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  our  fuel  is  wasted  by  our  open  fires,  under  the 
best  management.  Soot  is  very  inflammable,  and  one  pound 
of  it  gives  as  much,  if  not  more  heat,  than  one  pound  of 
coal ;  and  the  quantity  of  soot  which  lines  our  chimneys, 
when  bituminous  coal  is  used,  is  very  inconsiderable, 
compared  with  that  which  escapes  unconsumed  at  the 
chimney-top,  and  fills  the  neighborhood  with  Hacks,  and 
returning  into  our  houses  through  the  open  windows, 
makes  the  furniture  dirty,  or,  entering  our  lungs,  offers 
an  impediment  to  free  respiration.  Another  advantage 
of  the  revolving  grate  is,  that  it  may  be  turned  into  any 

5* 


106  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

position,  so  as  to  radiate  its  heat  in  one  direction  rather  than 
another;  and,  by  placing  the  bars  in  a  horizontal  position, 
a  tea-kettle,  or  other  cooking  utensil,  may  be  conveniently 
set  on  it. 

Count  Rumford  deserves  honorable  mention  as  an 
improver  of  grates,  and  an  economizer  of  fuel.  The  Rumford 
tore  has  made  his  name  familiar  among  all  classes,  and  is 
so  well  known,  that  a  description  is  unnecessary.  The 
Count's  essential  improvement  consisted  in  contracting  the 
area  of  the  fire-chamber,  and  placing  a  flat  surface  in  each 
interior  angle,  so  as  to  reflect  that  portion  of  heat  into  the 
room,  which  in  the  old  square-chambered  grates  escaped  up 
the  chimney.  The  throat  of  the  chimney  was  also  greatly 
reduced  in  size,  and  the  breastwork  rounded  off,  in  order  to 
afford  less  obstruction  to  the  ascent  of  the  smoke.  When  the 
chimney  required  sweeping,  the  plate  or  flag-stone  could  be 
removed  so  as  to  open  the  throat,  and  be  replaced  after  the 
operation.  According  to  Rumford,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
greatest  effect  from  the  fuel,  the  sides  of  the  fire-place  ought 
to  be  placed  at  an  angle  of  135°  with  the  back  of  the  grate; 
or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  a  line 
drawn  across  the  front  of  the  fire-place.  These  angular 
covings  were  not  to  be  of  iron,  but  of  some  non-conducting 
substance,  such  as  fire-clay,  and  polished  with  black-lead. 
He  objected  to  circular  covings,  on  the  ground  that  they 
produced  eddies  or  currents,  which  would  be  likely  to  cause 
the  chimney  to  smoke;  and  he  also  objected  to  the  old  form 
of  registers  or  metal  covers  to  the  breast  of  the  chimney,  for 
the  same  reason;  and  also  because,  by  their  sloping  upwards, 
towards  the  back  of  the  fire-place,  they  caused  the  warm  air 
from  the  room  to  be  drawn  up  the  chimney,  and  thus  inter- 
fered with  the  passage  of  the  smoke.  These  registers  are 
now  arranged  so  as  to  be  lower  at  the  back  than  at  the 
front  of  the  stove,  but  they  are  usually  placed  too  high  up. 
If  brought  down  lower  and  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°,  much 
of  the  heat  of  the  fire  would  be  reflected  into  the  room. 


TI1F.    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


107 


The  Count  also  greatly  diminished  the  size  of  the  fire-grate, 
and  considered  the  beat  proportions  for  the  chimney-recess 

to  be,  when  the  width  of  the  back  was  equal  to  the  depth 
from  front  to  back,  and  the  width  of  the  front  or  opening 
between  the  jambs  three  limes  the  width  of  the  back. 

"  Although  the  best  form  for  register  stoves  has  now  for 
several  years  past  been  adopted,  the  desire  for  novelty  has 
caused  the  true  principles  of  construction  to  be  frequently 
departed  from;  and  we  accordingly  find,  in  the  most  modern 
stoves,  considerable  deviations  from  these  principles." 

An  economical  mode  of  forming  the  living-room  fire-place 
and  stove,  is  shown  in  the  annexed  drawings.  The  chimney- 
jambs,  arch  and  back,  are  formed  of  bricks  glazed  on  the 
outer  surface,  which  would  have  a  very  neat  and  clean 
appearance.     The  plan  shows  the  back  of  the  fire-place  as 


FLA>-   OF  COTTAGE   LIVING-ROOM   FIRE-1'LACK. 


II  BVATIOX. 


108  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

circular,  with  the  grate  placed  as  far  forward  and  as  nearly 
in  the  focus  of  the  reflecting  surface  as  possible.  The 
chimney-mouth  should  be  small,  and  provided,  where  the  cost 
will  allow  of  it,  with  a  register-flap,  to  regulate  the  draught. 
The  fender  may  be  formed  with  stone  or  earthenware.  The 
grate  is  shown  of  a  simple  construction,  and  may  be  ren- 
dered still  more  so  by  forming  the  supports  of  bricks  or 
tiles. 

We  think  we  have  now  indicated  all  the  various  families 
of  open  fire-places,  at  least  as  far  as  their  principles  are  con- 
cerned. The  species  are  innumerable,  and  it  would  be 
impossible,  in  our  limited  space,  to  give  even  a  list  of  them. 
Those  who  desire  further  information  on  the  subject,  are 
referred  to  Mr.  Bernan's  entertaining  little  volumes.  But 
as  the  subject  of  open  fires  is  closely  connected  with  that  of 
smoky  chimneys,  it  may  be  useful  to  introduce  a  few  details 
respecting  this  complaint  and  its  cure. 

Science  often  follows  as  well  as  precedes  the  useful  arts. 
In  the  former  case,  she  has  to  correct  defects ;  in  the  latter 
case,  the   progress    of  those    arts    depends    on    her    own 
improvement.    The  invention  of  chimneys  was  not  a  scientific 
result,  but  an  act  of  necessity.     The  first  object  proposed 
to  be  accomplished  by  them  was  to  discharge  into  the  air 
the  products  of  combustion,  instead  of  allowing  them  to 
spread  over  the  apartment.     With  the  huge  wood  fires  of 
our  ancestors,   the  large  hearth  recess  and  the  capacious 
flue  did  not  interfere  with  the  accomplishment  of  the  object 
proposed;  but  as  circumstances  changed — when  fire-places 
were  introduced  into  small  rooms,  and  coal  was  substituted 
for   wood — the   arrangements   which    were,   then    suitable 
did   not    apply.     Science    was    unable,  or    did    not    con- 
descend, to  investigate  the   subject,  and  thus  the    defects 
of    chimneys    continued    to    exist  through    many    genera- 
tions.   One   great   defect   arose   from  the   great   capacity 
of  the  flue  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  fire,  the  heat- 
of  which  was  often  insufficient  to  determine  an  upward  cur- 


THK  AMERICAN  COTTAGE  Ll.Il. HER.  109 

rent  for  carrying  off  the  smoke.     It  is  now  a  mutter  of 

ryday  experience,  that  the  force  of  the  draught  in  a 
chimney  is  so  much  the  greater  as  the  column  of  air  which 
passes  up  it  is  longer  or  more  heated;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  taller  the  chimney,  or  the  hotter  the  lire,  the  more  rapid 
will  be  the  draught.  The  ascentional  force  of  this  current 
is  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  column  of 
heated  air  in  the  chimney,  and  a  column  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  of  equal  height.  The  draught,  therefore,  is 
increased  by  increasing  the  perpendicular  height  of  the  chim- 
ney. Its  length  in  a  horizonal  direction  does  not  increase, 
but  diminishes  the  draught,  by  cooling  the  air   before  it 

;  into  the  effective  part  of  the  flue.  The  draught  is 
also  increased,  by  making  all  the  air  which  enters  the 
chimney  pass  through  or  very  near  the  fuel;  for  when 
much  air  gets  into  the  chimney  above  the  fire,  by  having  a 
high  mantel-piece,  the  mass  of  air  in  the  chimney  cannot 
get  sufficiently  heated. 

It  is  a  law  of  expansion  for  atmospheric  air  and  all 
gases,  that  they  dilate  almost  equally  and  very  nearly  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  temperature.  According  to 
Gay  Lcssac,  1,000  cubic  inches  of  air  at  the  freezing 
temperature  increase  in  bulk  to  1,375  cubic  inches  at  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water.  For  an  increase  of  tempi  ra- 
turc,  therefore,  from  32°  to  212°,  amounting  to  ISO0,  the 
increase  of  volume  is  375  parts  in  1,000,  or  £  of  the  whole 
bulk  ;  and  since  the  expansion  is  uniform,  the  increase  of 
volume  for  1°  will  be  found  by  dividing  this  by  180,  which 
will  give  an  increase  of  2 Of-  parts  in  10,000  for  1°  of  Fah- 
renheit's thermometer.  The  recent  experiments  by  Magnus 
and  Regnault  have  thrown  a  doubt  on  the  correctness  of 
this  result.  By  methods  perfectly  independent  of  each 
other,  these  philosophers  have  arrived  at  0.36G5,  instead  of 
0.375,  as  the  true  co-efficient  for  the  expansion  of  atmos- 
pheric air. 

Now,  as  this  law  of  expansion  applies  equally  to  air  in 


110  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

motion  as  to  air  in  a  state  of  rest,  we  can  thus  calculate  the 
amount  of  dilatation  undergone  by  the  column  of  air  in  a 
chimney  from  the  heat  of  the  fire  in  the  grate.  But  as 
the  heat  is  constantly  varying,  so  also  is  the  volume  of 
ascending  air.  The  air  of  the  room  which  passes  through 
the  fire  and  undergoes  a  chemical  change  is  intensely  heated, 
and  passing  up  the  flue  becomes  reduced  in  temperature  at 
every  step.  The  air  which  rushes  into  the  cavity  above  the 
fire  becomes  also  suddenly  expanded,  rises,  and  mingling 
with  the  heated  gaseous  products  of  combustion,  diminishes 
somewhat  of  their  temperature,  while  it  augments  their 
bulk.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  heated  ascending 
column  may  be  found  by  taking  the  temperature  a  short 
distance  above  the  burning  fuel,  and  also  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney;  by  adding  these  two  results  together,  and  divid- 
ing by  two,  we  get  the  mean  temperature,  or  a  near 
approximation  thereto.  We  are  then  able  to  calculate  the 
force  of  the  draught  by  applying  one  of  those  rules  which 
scientific  men  have  formed  for  the  purpose.  The  method  of 
calculation  proposed  by  Moxtgolfier  is  very  simple,  and 
appears,  from  recent  inquiries,  to  be  accurate.  It  is  this: 
Ascertain  the  difference  iu  height  between  two  equal  columns 
of  air  when  one  is  heated  to  a  certain  temperature,  the 
other  being  the  temperature  of  the  external  air — and  the 
force  of  the  draught,  or  the  rate  of  efflux,  is  equal  to  the 
velocity  that  a  heavy  body  would  acquire  by  falling  freely 
through  this  difference  of  height.  Now,  the  space  through 
which  a  heavy  body  falls  in  perpendicular  height  in  one 
second  is  rather  more  than  sixteen  feet;  but  by  the  law  of 
accelerating  forces,  the  velocity  of  a  falling  body  at  the 
end  of  any  given  time  is  such  as  would  carry  it,  in  an 
equal  time,  through  twice  the  space  through  which  it  has 
fallen  in  that  time;  or  the  velocity,  in  feet  per  second,  is 
equal  to  eight  times  the  square  root  of  the  number  of  feet 
in  the  fall;  or,  to  the  square  root  of  the  number  obtained 
by  multiplying  64  by  the  height  of  the  fall  in  feet. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAfiE    BUILDER.  Ill 

"When  the  force  of  the  draught  of  a  chimney  is  the 
difference  in  weight  between  two  columns  of  air  caused  by 
the  expansion  of  one  of  these  columns  by  heat,  the  decimal 
.00208  which  represents  the  expansion  of  air  by  1°  of 
Fahrenheit,  must  be  multiplied  by  the  number  of  degrees 
the  temperature  is  raised,  and  this  product  again  by  the 
height  of  the  heated  column. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  heated  ascending  current 
in  a  chimney  is  much  greater  than  20°  above  that  of  the 
colder  eolunfci  with  which  it  is  compared;  but  it  is  most 
probable  that  air  expands  more  proportionally  at  high 
temperatures  than  at  low  ones  for  equal  increments  of 
heat.  As  the  law  of  expansion  for  high  temperatures  has 
not,  as  far  as  we  know,  been  determined,  it  was  thought 
better  to  select  an  example  within  the  range  of  our 
knowledge,  than  to  assume  a  higher  temperature,  which 
would  more  nearly  represent  the  conditions  of  the  case. 

By  the  same  means,  the  efflux  of  air,  under  any  given 
pressure,  can  also  be  calculated.  The  pressure  being 
known,  we  calculate  the  hight  of  a  column  of  air  ecpial  in 
weight  to  this  pressure. 

In  these  cases,  however,  there  must  be  an  allowance  for 
loss  by  frictiou,  which  will  vary  according  to  the  nature  and 
size  of  the  chimney-shaft,  and  also  with  the  velocity  of  the  air. 
The  retardation  of  the  air  by  friction,  in  passing  through 
straight  tubes,  will  be  directly  as  the  length  of  the  tube  aud 
the  square  of  the  velocity,  and  inversely,  as  the  diameter. 

In  this  way  the  action  of  chimneys  is  brought  within  the 
domain  of  science.  There  are,  however,  practical  difficulties 
and  special  cases  which  usually  come  under  the  pathological 
treatment  of  the  smoke-doctor;  these  may  all  be  resolved  by 
reference  to  well-known  scientific  principles;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, the  smoke-doctor  is  not  always — indeed  very  seldom — 
a  man  of  science.  The  following  cases  of  smoky  chimneys 
and  the  method  of  cure,  will  include  as  much  as  need  be  said 
on  this  subject  to  the  intelligent  reader. 


112  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

Chimneys  may  smoke  for  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
air.  This  is  sometimes  the  case  in  a  new  house,  where  doors 
and  windows  fit  tightly  and  accurately,  so  that  scarcely  a 
chink  is  left  for  the  admission  of  air.  Or  if  the  house  be  not 
new,  the  windows  and  doors  are  often  listed,  sandbags  are 
placed  over  the  junction  of  the  two  window-frames,  and  a 
thick  mat  closes  the  bottom  of  the  door,  and  even  the  key- 
hole is  often  stopped.  It  is  no  wonder  that,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, the  chimney  should  smoke ;  for  the  air  necessary 
to  support  the  fire  must  come  down  the  chim»ey  (the  only 
way  left  for  it)  instead  of  passing  through  the  fire  and  up  it. 
To  ascertain,  in  a  rough  way,  how  much  air  is  required  per 
minute  to  make  the  fire  burn  well  without  smoking,  set  the 
door  open  until  the  fire  is  burning  properly,  then  gradually 
close  it  until  smoke  again  begins  to  appear.  Then  open 
it  a  little  wider  and  hold  it  in  such  a  position  as  will  admit 
the  necessary  supply.  Now  observe  the  width  of  the  open 
crevice  between  the  edge  of  the  door,  and  the  rabbet  into 
which  it  would  shut.  Suppose  this  distance  to  be  half  an 
inch  in  a  door  eight  feet  high;  the  room  would,  in  such  case, 
require  for  the  entrance  of  the  air  an  aperture  equal  to  48 
square  inches,  or  a  hole  six  inches  by  eight  inches.  This, 
however,  would  be  more  than  is  usually  required.  Dr. 
Franklin  found  that  a  square  opening  of  six  inches  to  the 
side,  was  a  good  medium  size  for  most  chimneys.  But  now 
comes  the  difficulty  (at  least  in  English  houses,  where  no 
air-duct  is  provided  by  the  architect  and  builder,  as  in  the 
Polignac  fire-place),  where  to  make  this  opening.  If  made 
in  the  door,  it  not  only  interferes  with  the  privacy  of  the 
room,  but  admits  of  cold  draught  to  the  back  and  feet  of 
those  sitting  near  the  fire;  if  made  in  the  window,  it  brings 
a  cataract  of  cold  air  down  upon  the  heads  of  the  inmates. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  cut  a  crevice  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  window-frame,  and  to  place  below  this  a  thin  shelf, 
sloping  upwards,  in  order  to  direct  the  air  towards  the  ceil- 
ing, where,  mingling  with  the  heated  air  of  the  apartment, 


Tin:    AM  BMC  AN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  113 

it  would  mitigate  its  temperature,  and  bring  it  down  ag 
to  feed  the  lire.  The  objection  to  this  plan  is,  thai  it  would 
cool  the  room;  but  as  fresh  air  admitted  from  any  oi 
source  would  have  a  similar  cooling  effect,  it  is  not  eas; 
propose  a  better  plan.  An  old-fashioned  contrivance  for 
kitchens,  was  to  place  in  one  of  the  spaces  of  the  window- 
frame  a  circular  tin  plate,  containing  a  wheel  mounted  on 
an  axis,  the  radii  or  vanes  being  bent  obliquely;  these  being 
acted  on  by  the  entering  air,  forced  it  round  like  the  vanes 
of  a  wind-mill,  and  at  the  same  time  dispersed  the  air  to  a 
certain  extent,  aud  prevented  a  distinct  draught  from  being 
felt.  Another  method  was  to  take  out  a  pane  of  glass  aud 
substitute  a  tin  frame,  giving  it  two  springing  angular  sides, 
and  being  furnished  with  hinges  below,  it  Could  be  drawn  in 
more  or  less  above,  so  that  the  incoming  air  might  be 
directed  upwards,  and  regulated  as  to  quantity.  A  con- 
trivance has  lately  been  introduced  for  ventilating  rooms, 
but  when  there  is  a  fire  in  the  room,  it  must  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  air  instead  of  letting  it  out.  It  consists 
of  a  number  of  strips  of  plate  glass,  arranged  after  the  fash- 
ion of  a  Venetian  blind,  occupying  the  position  of  one  of  the 
panes  of  glass  in  the  upper  window-frame.  By  a  little 
adjusting  motion,  the  strips  can  be  separated  more  or  less 
apart,  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air,  or  closed  entirely,  so  as 
to  exclude  it.  Perforated  panes  of  glass  have  also  been  in- 
troduced as  ventilators,  but  they  must  also  bring  air  into 
the  room  instead  of  letting  it  out,  when  a  fire  is  burning. 

A  second  cause  of  smoky  chimneys  arises  from  the  size 
of  the  fire-place;  it  may  be  too  wide  or  too  high.  Dr. 
Franklin  recommended  that  the  openings  in  the  lower 
rooms  should  be  about  30  inches  square  and  18  deep;  aud 
those  in  the  upper  rooms  only  18  inches  square  and  not 
quite  so  deep;  the  intermediate  openings  diminishing  in 
proportion  to  the  height  of  the  funnel. 

But  the  funnel  itself  may  be  too  high  compared  with  the 
Bize  of  the  fire.     The  hot  air  ascending  to  a  certain  heigkf 


114  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

may  distribute  its  heat  to  the  air  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
flue,  so  that  the  whole  may  cool  down,  and  the  column 
within  the  flue  be  nearly  of  the  same  weight  as  an  equal 
column  on  the  outside.  In  such  a  case  there  will  be  little 
or  no  draught  to  carry  off  the  smoke,  and  it  will,  therefore, 
enter  the  room. 

But  it  more  frequently  happens  that  the  funnel  is  too 
short.  The  remedy,  in  such  a  case,  is  to  contract  the  opening 
of  the  chimney,  so  as  to  force  all  the  air  that  enters  to  pass 
through  or  very  near  the  fire. 

In  some  houses,  instead  of  having  a  separate  chimney  for 
each  room  or  fire-place,  the  flue  is  bent  or  turned  from  an 
upper  room  into  the  flue  of  another  fire  from  below.  In 
such  a  case,  the  upper  chimney  is  too  short,  since  the  length 
can  only  be  estimated  from  the  place  where  it  enters  the 
flue  of  the  lower  room ;  aud  this,  in  its  turn,  is  also  shorten- 
ed in  efficient  length  by  the  distance  between  the  entrance 
at  the  second  funnel  and  the  top  of  the  stack;  for  all  that 
part  being  supplied  with  air  from  the  second  funnel,  adds 
no  force  to  the  draught;  and  if  there  is  no  fire  in  the 
second  chimney,  it  cools  the  hot  current  of  the  first,  and  so 
diminishes  the  draught.  The  remedy,  in  this  case,  is  to  close 
the  opening  of  that  chimney  in  which  there  is  no  fire. 

Chimneys  often  overpower  each  other,  and  so  cause 
them  to  smoke.  If,  for  example,  there  are  two  fire-places 
in  one  large  room,  with  fires  in  each,  and  the  doors  and 
windows  closed;  if  the  two  fires  do  not  burn  equally  well, 
either  from  not  being  lighted  at  the  same  time,  or  not 
equally  supplied  with  fuel,  or  from  any  other  cause,  the 
stronger  fire  will  overpower  the  weaker,  and  draw  the  air 
down  its  funnel  to  supply  its  own  demand.  The  air  descend- 
ing the  funnel  of  the  weaker  fire  brings  the  smoke  with  it, 
and  thus  fills  the  room.  Two  chimneys  in  different  rooms, 
which  communicate  by  a  door,  may  also  act  in  this  way 
whenever  the  door  is  opened;  so,  also,  in  a  house  where  all 
the  doors  and  windows  fit  tightly,  a  strong  kitchen  chimney 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  115 

on  the  lowest  floor  may  overpower  any  other  chimney  in  the 
house,  and  draw  air  and  smoke  into  the  rooms  as  often  as 
a  door  communicating  with  the  staircase  is  opened.  Dr. 
Franklin'  mentions  the  ease  of  a  nobleman's  house  in 
Westminster  afflicted  with  this  troublesome  complaint.  It 
was  a  new  house,  and  after  the  owner  had  paid  for  it,  and 
discharged  all  claims,  he  had  to  expend  XLJOO  more  before 
the  smoky  chimneys  were  cured.  Of  course,  the  only 
remedy  for  this  disorder  is,  to  provide  each  room  with  the 
means  of  furnishing  the  fire-place  with  a  sufficient  supply  of 
air  for  the  combustion  of  the  fuel.  When  will  architects 
and  builders  be  convinced  of  the  fact,  that  fire-places,  as 
well  as  human  beings,  require  constant  supplies  of  fresh  air, 
and  that  it  is  their  duty  to  provide  every  room  with  air- 
channels,  placed  so  as  to  feed  the  fire  without  annoying  the 
inmates  ? 

Another  fruitful  source  of  smoky  chimneys  is,  when  their 
tops  are  commanded  by  higher  buildings,  or  by  a  hill,  so 
that  the  wind  blowing  over  them,  falls  like  water  over  a 
dam,  sometimes  almost  passing  over  the  tops  of  the  chim- 
neys, and  beating  down  the  smoke.  If  the  funnels  cannot 
be  raised,  so  that  their  tops  may  be  of  the  same  height  or 
higher  than  the  eminence,  the  only  remedy  is  to  mount  one 
of  those  ugly  contrivances  with  which  the  chimney-doctors 
delight  to  satirize  the  architect  and  builder,  and  which  are 
thus  enumerated  by  an  amusing  writer  in  Chambers's  Edin- 
burgh Journal: — "The  simplest  of  all  consists  in  the  well- 
known  revolving  bonnets,  or  cowls,  with  wind-arrows  on 
their  summits;  which,  by  the  way,  were  once  called  Bishops, 
in  Scotland,  while  a  friend  assures  me,  that  in  the  west  of 
England  he  has  heard  them  called  Presbyterians.  The 
philosophy  of  this  contrivance  is  sufficiently  simple:  in 
whichever  direction  the  wind  blows,  the  mouth  of  the  chim- 
ney is  averted  from  it.  This  principle  has  its  development 
in  a  thousand  devices — some  looking  like  Dutch-ovens  come 
up  to  see  the  world;  some  like  half  sections  of  sugar-loaves; 


116  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

some  like  capital  IPs,  and  sundry  other  pleasing  objects. 
The  red  chimney-pots,  too,  have  contrivances  of  a  similar 
intention,  in  the  diverging  spouts  and  cavities  and  twists 
which  some  of  them  delight  in.  A  different  species,  is  the 
perforated  whirling  variety,  which  seem  perpetually  whizzing 
round,  for  the  mere  fun  of  the  thing,  since  any  good  they 
do  is  extremely  apt  to  escape  detection.  They  are  a  lively- 
tooking  apparatus;  but  on  squally  nights,  and  when  the 
pivot  becomes  a  little  rusty,  the  musical  sounds  they  give 
forth  can  scarcely  be  considered  agreeable.  Among  the 
more  ingenious  of  smoke-curers,  an  invention  of  recent  origin, 
named  the  Archimedean  screw-ventilator,  deserves  a  place.  It 
consists,  as  its  name  implies,  of  wine-vanes  attached  to  the 
extremity  of  a  revolving  screw.  When  the  wind  strikes 
these  vanes,  it  produces  a  rapid  revolution  of  the  screw, 
which  is  thus  supposed  to  wind  up  the  smoke  or  vitiated  air 
from  below.  Perhaps  it  serves  the  proposed  end ;  but  wheth- 
er the  positive  advantage  thus  gained  is  not  lost  by  the 
obstruction  of  such  apparatus  to  the  free  passage  of  smoke 
in  calm  weather,  is  a  point  in  my  estimation,  more  than 
questionable.  For  the  relief  of  such  chimneys  as  only  smoke 
in  windy  weather,  perhaps,  this  and  other  forms  of  external 
apparatus  are  best  adapted.  Another  invention  of  equal 
merit,  is  a  chimney-cap  of  metal,  externally  grooved  in  a 
series  of  spiral  curves  up  the  pipe,  which  end  in  a  kind  of 
mouth-piece,  from  whence  the  smoke  issues.  The  wind, 
when  impelled  against  this  apparatus,  is  supposed  to  take 
somewhat  of  the  direction  of  the  spiral  grooves,  and  thus 
to  form  an  upward  current  to  assist  the  emission  of  the 
smoke."  One  of  the  most  recent  of  this  class  of  inventions 
is  Day's  wind-guard,  which  consists  of  an  octagonal 
metallic  chimney-cap,  having  four  slits  in  it,  which  are  pro- 
tected by  projecting  pieces  or  slips  of  metal.  When  a 
current  of  air  strikes  in  any  direction  against  the  cap,  it 
reflects  or  turns  the  air  in  such  a  manner,  as  immediately 
to  produce  a  draught  up  the  pipe.     "  In  casting  one's  eye 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDKB.  117 

down  the  long  Btreets  of  the  smoky  city,  in  taking  a  survey 
of  the  roofs  and  their  tormented  chimneys,  the  infinity  of 
other  contrivances  is  so  great,  that  it  is  scarcely  a  poetical 
hyperbole  to  say  our  pen  starts  back  from  it.  Here  is 
patent  upon  patent,  scheme  after  scheme,  each  doing  its 
best,  do  doubt,  to  obtain  the  mastery  over  that  simple  thing 
— smoke;  and  each  with  a  degree  of  success  of  a  very 
hopeless  amount.  There  appears  to  me  something  intensely 
ludicrous  in  these  struggles  against  what  seems  to  be  an 

CO 

absurd,  but  an  invincible  foe*;  the  very  element  of  whose 
success  against  us  lies  in  our  not  strangling  him  in  his  birth. 
Many  obstacles  are  in  the  way,  no  doubt ;  there  are  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  every  good;  but  I  have  little  doubt,  that 
had  the  perverted  ingenuity  which  has  mis-spent  itself  upon 
the  chimney-pots  been  directed  to  the  fire-place,  we  might 
have  now  had  a  different  tale  to  tell.  The  smoke  nuisance 
i-  laughed  at  as  a  minor  evil,  by  a  great  practical  people 
like  ourselves,  who  heroically  make  up  our  minds  to  put  up 
with  it;  but  when  it  is  considered  as  an  item  in  the  comfort, 
cleanliness,  ami  health  of  a  whole  nation,  it  assumes,  or 
should  assume,  a  different  position." 

We  do  not  by  any  means  affirm  that  the  above  contri- 
vances are  always  effectual  in  the  cure  of  smoky  chimneys; 
for  it  is  easy  to  imagine  eases  where  chimneys  will,  or 
rather  must  Bmoke,  in  spite  of  the  whole  host  of  caps,  cowls, 
and  vanes.  For  example,  when  a  commanding  eminence  is 
farther  from  the  wind  than  the  chimney  commanded,  the 
wind  would,  as  it  were,  be  dammed  up  between  the  house 
and  the  eminence,  and  force  its  way  down  the  chimneys,  in 
whatever  position  the  turn-cap  or  other  contrivance  might 

rituated.  Dr.  Fraxki.iv  mentions  a  city  m  which  many 
houses  were  tormented  with  smoky  chimneys  by  this  opera- 
tion; for  their  kitchens  being  built  behind,  and  connected  by 
a  passage  with  the  houses,  the  tops  of  the  kitchen  chim- 
neys were  thus  lower  than  the  tops  of  the  bouses;  and  thus, 
when  the  wind  blew  against   tho  backs  of  the  houses,  tho 


118  THE    AMERICAN*    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

whole  side  of  a  street  formed  a  dam  and  the  obstructed 
wind  was  forced  down  the  kitchen  chimneys,  and  passed 
along  the  passages  into  the  houses,  and  so  into  the  street. 
This  was  especially  the  case  when  the  kitchen  fires  were 
burning  badly.  In  summer,  the  annoyance  assumed  a 
different  form,  for  the  smoke  was  wafted  from  the  kitchen 
chimneys  into  the  chambers  of  the  upper  rooms. 

Chimneys,  which  otherwise  draw  well,  will  often  smoke 
from  the  improper  situation  of  a  door.  Thus,  when  the 
door  and  the  chimney  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  room, 
and  the  door,  being  in  the  comer,  is  made  to  open  agaiust 
the  wall,  as  is  usually  done,  to  have  it  more  out  of  the  way, 
it  follows  that,  when  the  door  is  partially  opened,  a  current 
of  air  rushes  in  and  passes  along  the  wall  into  and  across  the 
opening  of  the  fire-place,  and  whisks  the  smoke  into  the 
room.  This  happens  more  frequently  when  the  door  is 
being  shut,  for  then  the  force  of  the  current  is  increased, 
and  persons  sitting  near  the  fire  feel  all  the  inconveniences 
both  of  the  draught  and  the  smoke.  A  remedy  may  be 
found  by  an  intervening  screen,  projecting  from  the  wall 
and  passing  round  a  great  part  of  the  fire-place;  or,  still 
better,  by  shifting  the  hinges  of  the  door,  so  as  to  throw  the 
air  along  the  other  wall. 

A  room  with  no  fire  in  it  is  sometimes  filled  with  smoke 
from  the  funnel  of  another  room,  in  which  a  fire  is  burning. 
This  arises  from  changes  in  density  of  the  air  in  the  cold 
funnel,  from  changes  in  temperature  by  day  and  by  night,  as 
well  as  from  changes  in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  It  is 
found  that  when  the  temperature  of  the  outer  air  and  of 
that  in  the  funnels  is  nearly  equal,  the  air  begins  to  ascend 
the  funnels  as  the  cool  of  the  evening  comes  on,  and  this 
current  will  continue  till  nine  or  ten  o'clock  next  morning; 
then,  as  the  heat  of  the  day  approaches,  it  sets  downwards, 
and  continues  to  do  so  till  evening;  it  then  changes  again, 
and  continues  to  go  upwards  during  the  night.  Now,  when 
the  smoke  from  the  tops  of  neighboring  funnels  passes  over 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGH    BUILDER,  110 

the  tops  of  funnels  which  are  drawing  downwards,  the 
sinoke  is  also  drawn  down,  and  descends  with  the  air  into 
the  chandler.  The  remedy  proposed  by  Dr.  Fkaxki.ix,  was 
to  contract  the  opening  of  the  chimney  to  about  two  feet 
between  the  jambs,  and  to  bring  the  breast  down  to  about 
three  feet  of  the  hearth.  An  iron  frame  is  then  placed  just 
under  the  breast,  and  extending  to  the  back  of  the  chimney, 
so  that  a  plate  of  iron  may  slide  horizontally  backwards  and 
forwards  in  the  grooves  on  each  side  of  the  frame;  this 
plate,  when  thrust  quite  in,  fills  up  the  whole  space,  and 
shuts  up  the  chimney  entirely,  when  there  is  no  fire.  But 
when  there  is  a  fire,  it  can  be  drawn  out,  so  as  to  leave 
between  its  farther  edge  and  the  back,  a  space  of  about  two 
inches,  which  is  sufficient  for  the  smoke  to  pass;  and  so 
large  a  part  of  the  funnel  being  stopped  by  the  rest  of  the 
plate,  the  passage  of  warm  air  out  of  the  room,  up  the 
chimney,  is  in  great  measure  prevented,  as  is  also  the  cold 
air  from  crevices  to  supply  its  place.  The  effect  is  seen  in 
three  ways:  1.  When  the  fire  burns  briskly  in  cold  weather, 
the  howling  or  whisking  of  the  wind,  as  it  enters  the  room 
through  the  crevices  when  the  chimney  is  open,  ceases  as 
soon  as  the  plate  is  slid  into  its  proper  distance.  2.  Open- 
ing the  door  of  the  room  about  half  an  inch,  and  holding 
the  hand  against  the  opening  near  the  top  of  the  door,  you 
feel  the  cold  air  coming  in  against  your  hand,  but  weakly, 
if  the  plate  be  in.  Let  another  person  draw  it  out,  so  as  to 
let  the  air  of  the  room  go  up  the  chimney  with  its  usual 
freedom  in  open  chimneys,  and  you  immediately  feel  the  cold 
air  rushing  in  strongly.  3.  If  something  be  set  against  the 
door,  just  sufficient  when  the  plate  is  in  to  keep  the  door 
nearly  shut,  by  resisting  the  pressure  of  the  air  that  would 
force  it  open,  then,  when  the  plate  is  drawn  out,  the  door 
will  be  forced  open  by  the  increased  pressure  of  the  outward 
cold  air  endeavoring  to  get  in,  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
warm  air  that  now  passes  out  of  the  room  to  go  up  the 
chimney.     "  In   our   common   open    chimneys/'    says   the 


120  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

Doctor,  "  half  of  the  fuel  is  wasted,  and  its  effect  lost;  the 
air  it  has  warmed  being  immediately  drawn  off." 
•  The  form  of  the  chimney-pot  has  also  an  influence  on 
the  free  passage  of  the  smoke.  Many  of  those  fancy  chim- 
ney-pots ornamented,  siugly.  or  clustered  together,  will 
cause  the  chimneys  to  smoke  in  strong  winds;  the  ornaments 
serving  as  points  of  resistance  to  the  wind,  after  reflecting 
it  down  the  chimney;  and  the  clustered  arrangement  pre- 
senting a  broad  resisting  surface,  so  that  the  wind,  in  blow- 
ing against  them,  rises  up  along  the  surface,  and  blows 
strongly  over  the  mouths  of  the  pots,  so  that  the  smoke 
cannot  force  its  way  through  the  blast.  In  Venice,  the 
top  of  the  flue  is  rounded  into  the  true  form  of  a  funnel, 
and  this  is  often  found  to  answer  the  purpose.  ;  but,  at 
present,  we  do  not  know  of  any  remedy  except  a  turn- 
cop,  or  one  of  the  many  elegant  contrivances  which  give 
such  wonderful  variety  to  the  sky-line  of  most  of  our  houses 
and  public  buildings. 

Cases  of  smoky  chimneys  may  arise,  which  may  puzzle 
the  science  of  the  most  accomplished  smoke-doctor.  We 
borrow  two  such  cases  from  Fbanklin.  "  I  once  lodged," 
he  says,  "  in  a  house  in  London,  which,  in  a  little  room, 
had  a  single  chimney  and  funnel.  The  opening  was  very 
small,  yet  it  did  not  keep  in  the  smoke,  and  all  attempts 
to  have  a  fire  in  this  room  were  fruitless.  I  could  not 
imagine  the  reason;  till  at  length,  observing  that  the  cham- 
ber over  it,  which  had  no  fire-place  in  it,  was  always  filled 
with  smoke  when  a  fire  was  kindled  below,  and  that  the 
smoke  came  through  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  wain- 
scoat.  I  had  the  wainscoat  taken  down,  and  discovered 
that  the  funnel  which  went  up  behind  it,  had  a  crack  many 
feet  in  length,  and  wide  enough  to  admit  my  arm;  a  breach 
very  dangerous  with  regard  to  fire,  and  occasioned,  proba- 
bly, by  an  apparent  irregular  settling  of  one  side  of  the 
house.  The  air  entering  this  breach  freely,  destroyed  the 
drawing-force  of  the  funnel.    The  remedy  would  have  been, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  121 

filling  up  the  breach,  or  rather  rebuilding  the  funnel  ;  but 
the  landlord  rather  chose  to  slop  up  the  chimney." 

The  second  ease  occurred  at  the  house  of  a  friend  near 
London.  "  His  best  room  had  a  chimney,  in  which  lie  told 
me  he  never  could  have  a  lire,  for  all  the  smoke  came  out 
into  the  room.  I  flattered  myself  that  I  could  easily  find 
the  cause,  ami  prescribe  the  cure.  I  opened  the  door,  and 
perceived  it  was  not  want  of  air.  I  made  a  temporary 
contraction  of  the  opening  of  the  chimney,  and  found  that 
it  was  not  its  being  too  large  that  caused  the  smoke  to 
issue.  I  went  and  looked  up  at  the  top  of  the  chimney;  its 
funnel  was  joined  in  the  same  stack  with  others,  some  of 
them  shorter,  that  drew  very  well,  and  I  saw  nothing  to 
prevent  its  doing  the  same.  In  fine,  after  every  other 
examination  I  could  think  of,  I  was  obliged  to  own  the 
insufficiency  of  my  skill.  But  my  friend,  who  made  no  pre- 
tension to  such  kind  of  knowledge,  afterwards  discovered 
the  cause  himself.  He  got  to  the  top  of  the  funnel  by  a 
ladder,  and  looking  down,  found  it  filled  with  twigs  and 
straw  cemented  by  earth,  and  lined  with  leathers.  It 
seems,  the  house,  after  being  built,  had  stood  empty  some 
years  before  he  occupied  it;  and  he  concluded  that  some 
large  birds  had  taken  the  advantage  of  its  retired  situation 
to  make  their  nests  there.  The  rubbish,  considerable  in 
quantity,  being  removed,  and  the  funnel  cleared,  the  chim- 
ney drew  well,  and  gave  satisfaction." 

It  has  been  remarked,  that  chimneys  situated  in  the 
north  wall  of  a  house,  do  not  draw  so  well  as  those  in  a 
south  wall;  because  when  cooled  by  north  winds,  they  are 
apt  to  draw  downwards.  Ilence,  chimneys  enclosed  in  the 
body  of  a  house,  are  more  favorably  situated  than  those  iu 
exposed  walls.  Chimneys  in  stacks  often  draw  better  than 
separate  funnels,  because  those  that  have  constant  fires  in 
them  warm  those  in  which  there  are  none. 

We  have  devoted  a  considerable  space  to  this  subject, 
because  we  think  the  reader  has  a  right  to  expect,  in  a 

6 


122  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

practical  book  of  this  kind,  tolerably  full  information  on  a 
subject  in  which  all  are  interested;  and  the  above  cases 
seem  to  include  most  of  the  causes  of  smoky  chimneys  and 
their  remedies.  The  open  fire-place  is  so  intimately  connect- 
ed with  our  ideas  of  domestic  comfort,  that  it  can  never 
be  expected,  while  coals  are  plentiful,  that  a  more  economi- 
cal method  of  warming  our  rooms  will  become  very  common. 
It  is,  therefore,  the  duty  of  scientific  men,  to  make  the  open 
fire-place  as  comfortable  as  it  certainly  is  wholesome,  and  if 
a  better  method  of  supplying-  air  to  the  fire  than  the  present 
chance-arrangement  were  adopted  ;  if  caliducts  were  led 
round  the  fire,  so  as  to  discharge  warm  air  into  distant 
parts  of  the  room,  and  even  over  the  house;  if  the  various 
parts  of  the  fire-place  were  of  the  proper  shape  and  dimen- 
sions, there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  against  retaining 
our  cherished  open  fire,  and  converting  it  from  a  trouble- 
some, uncertain,  smoky,  and  expensive  companion,  into  a 
source  of  health,  pleasure,  and  economy. 

One  of  the  most  intelligent  advocates  (Dr.  Arnott)  in 
the  cause  of  the  close-stove  versus  the  open  fire-place,  has 
preferred  a  very  serious  bill  of  indictment  against  the 
defendant.  It  consists  of  no  less  than  eleven  counts,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  summary  : 

I.  Waste  of  fuel. — Of  the  whole  heat  produced  from  the 
fuel  used,  about  seven-eighths  ascend  the  chimney  and  are 
wasted.  The  loss  of  heat  is,  first,  more  than  half,  which  is 
in  the  smoke  as  it  issues  from  the  burning  mass.  Secondly, 
that  carried  off  by  the  current  of  the  warmed  air  of  the 
room,  which  is  constantly  entering  the  chimney  between  the 
fire  and  the  mantel-piece,  and  mixing  with  the  smoke. 
This  is  estimated  at  nearly  two-eighths.  Thirdly,  the  soot, 
or  visible  part  of  the  smoke,  is  unburned  fuel;  and  if  more 
than  half  of  the  heat  produced  be  in  the  smoke,  and  nearly 
a  fourth  of  it  in  the  warm  air  from  the  room,  which  escapes 
with  the  smoke,  and  if  about  an  eighth  of  the  combustible 
pass  away  unburned,  there  is  a  loss  of  at  least  seven-eighths 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  123 

of  the  whole.  Count  Humford  estimated  the  loss  at  four- 
teen-fifteenths.  These  estimates  must  of  course  be  supposed 
to  refer  to  the  open  fire-place  with  square  jambs. 

II.  Unequal  heating  at  different  distances  from  the  fire. — 
As    the    intensity  of   radiant    heat   is    only  one-fourth  as 

:t  at  a  doable  distance,  and  so  on,  its  effect  being 
inversely  as  the  sqnare  of  the  distance,  the  walls  of  the  room 
are  scarcely  heated,  and  therefore  reflect  no  heat  to  persons 
round  the  (ire.  There  is  usually  one  circular  line  around 
the  lire  in  which  persons  must  sit  to  be  comfortable  ;  and 
within  this  line  they  are  too  hot,  and  beyond  it  too  cold. 

III.  Cold  draughts  from  doors  and  windows 

IY.  Cold  foot-bath. — The  fresh-entering  air,  being  colder 
than  the  general  mass  already  iu  the  room,  occupies  the 
bottom  of  the  apartment,  and  forms  a  dangerous  cold  air- 
bath  for  the  feet  of  the  inmates,  so  that  they  must  keep 
their  feet  raised  out  of  it  by  foot-stools,  or  wear  warmer 
clothing.  We  see  how  anxious  cats  are  to  get  out  of  this 
cold  air-bath  by  occupying  the  seats  of  chairs,  &c,  instead 
of  the  carpet. 

V.  Bad  ventilation. — The  heated  respired  air  ascends  to 
the  ceiling,  and  getting  cool,  descends,  and  is  breathed  over 
again  ;  or,  if  the  fire  be  not  sufficiently  supplied  with  air 
from  the  door  and  windows,  it  will  come  from  other  quar- 
ters, and  bring  in  foul  air  from  drains,  &c. 

YI.    Smoke  and  dust. 

VII.  Loss  of  time  in  lighting  the  fires  in  the  morning, 
and  again  during  the  day,  if  neglected  and  allowed  to  go 
out. 

VIII.  Danger  to  property. 

IX.  Danger  to  the  person. — Children  get  burnt,  and  the 
dresses  of  ladies  sometimes  take  fire  by  a  sudden  draught 
from  the  door,  or  coining  too  near  the  fire. 

X.  Expense  of  attendance. — It  is  contended  that  servants 
have  more  work  to  do  in  houses  with  open  fires,  than  where 
stoves  are  kept. 


124  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

XI.  Necessity  of  sweeping-boys,  tchen  bituminous  coal  is  used. 

This  is  certainly  a  formidable  indictment,  but  after  the 
details  given  in  the  last  chapter,  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter 
upon  any  further  defence.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  upon 
some  of  the  counts,  the  defendant  must  be  found  guilty; 
but  it  will  be  seen,  in  the  present  chapter,  that  the  plaintiff 
does  not  come  into  court  with  clean  hands,  for  there  are 
many  objections  to  the  close  stove,  from  which  the  open 
grate  is  entirely  free.     These  will  be  stated  as  we  proceed. 

The  close  stove  is  used  chiefly  in  those  countries  where 
fuel  is  scarce.  One  of  the  simplest  forms  is  the  Dutch 
stove  which  is  a  cylinder,  standing  upright.  The  fuel  rests 
on  the  bars  of  a  grate,  near  the  bottom,  and  the  air  enters 
below  the  grate.  The  pipe  enters  the  side  of  the  cylinder, 
near  the  top.  The  fuel  is  introduced  by  a  door  on  the  side 
above  the  grate,  which  door  is  closed  while  the  stove  is  in 
a</t ion,  and  as  this  is  the  only  opening  in  the  stove  above 
the  fuel,  no  air  can  reach  the  chimney,  except  that  which 
has  passed  through  the  fire,  thus  saving  the  waste  of  warm 
air,  which,  in  open  fires,  passes  between  the  fire  and  the 
mantel-piece.  The  heating  effect  of  this  stove  is  due  to  the 
whole  surface  of  the  stove,  and  its  flue,  receiving  the  direct 
heat  of  combustion,  as  well  as  much  of  the  heat  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion,  as  they  escape  into  the  chimney;  and, 
if  the  flue  be  made  sufficiently  long,  so  as  to  expose  a  large 
surface  in  the  room,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  heat  may  be 
applied  to  use,  without  draughts,  or  smoke,  or  dust.  These 
are  the  good  qualities  of  the  Dutch  stove;  now  for  its  bad  ones. 
The  heated  iron  surface  acts  upon  the  air  in  contact  with  it, 
so  as  to  impair  its  purity  and  fitness  for  respiration.  "  The 
air,"  says  Dr.  Arxott,  "  acquires  a  burnt  and  often  sulphurous 
smell,  in  part,  no  doubt,  because  dust,  which  it  often  carries, 
is  burned,  and  in  part,  because  there  is  a  peculiar  action  of 
the  iron  upon  the  air.  It  becomes  very  dry,  too,  like  that 
of  an  Africau  simoom,  shrivelling  everything  which  it 
touches;  and  it  acquires  probably  some  new  electrial  pro- 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BtTILDEB.  125 

perties.     These  changes  combined  make  it  so  offensive,  that 

persons,  unaccustomed  to  it,  cannot  hear  it.  Many  forms 
have  been  proposed,  some  of  them  gracefully  designed,  with 
transparent  talc  doors,  and  other  at  trait  ions;  and  they 
have  been  tried  in  rooms,  public  offices,  passages,  halls,  &c, 
but  have  been  afterwards  very  generally  abandoned.  Pel- 
sons  breathing  the  air  heated  by  them,  arc  often  affected 
by  headaches,  giddiness,  stupor,  loss  of  appetite,  ophthal- 
mia, &c.  A  north-east  wind,  which  distresses  many  people, 
bringing  asthmas,  croups,  &c,  and  which  withers  vegeta- 
tion, is  peculiar  chiefly  in  being  dry."  This  stove  is  much 
used  by  laundresses  and  others  for  drying,  and  in  this 
application  of  it,  the  Doctor  admits,  it  is  good  and  econo- 
mical. The  ornamental  varieties  of  it  are  also  furnished 
with  vases  and  other  receptacles  for  water,  which,  by  its 
evaporation,  greatly  mitigates  the  evils  complained  of  ;  but 
it  must  be  admitted,  that  the  list  of  objections  brought 
against  the  Dutch  stove  forms  as  formidable  a  bill  of  indict- 
ment as  that  preferred  against  the  open  fire.  Another 
objection,  not  noticed  in  the  above  cpiotation,  arises  from 
the  overheating  of  the  flue.  It  has  often  been  known  to 
get  red-hot,  and  has  thus  led  to  serious  conflagrations. 

A  stove  is  common  in  the  United  States,  which  consists 
of  a  square,  close  iron  box,  with  a  vessel  of  water  upon  it,  to 
give  moisture  to  the  air.  It  has  a  plate  projecting  under 
the  door;  the  wood  fuel  is  burned  within,  and  the  flame 
] .asses  along  to  the  chimney,  around  an  inner  box,  which  is 
the  cooking  oven  of  the  family,  opening  by  a  door  in  the 
side  of  the  stove.  The  fuel  is  introduced  by  a  large  door, 
in  which  there  is  a  smaller  one,  which,  as  well  as  the 
larger,  is  usually  kept  shut,  because  a  sufficient  supply  of 
air  enters  by  the  joinings  around;  but  in  cold  weather, 
the  small  door  is  opened  to  increase  the  combustion.  The 
stove  has  iron  legs. 

In  Russia,  Prussia,  and  the  North  of  Europe  generally, 
the  stove  is  a  very  important  article  of  domestic  furniture, 


126  THE    AMERICAN7    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

in  which  the  largest  possible  amount  of  heating  effect  is 
obtained  from  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  fuel.  In  the 
construction  of  these  stoves,  the  following  points  are  kept  in 
view:  To  maintain  in  the  fire-place  the  high  temperature 
necessary  for  the  perfect  combustion  of  the  fuel,  by  surround- 
in"-  it  with  such  substances  as  are  bad  conductors  of  heat, 
such  as  fire-stone  or  bricks;  to  have  the  means  of  regulating 
the  quantity  of  air  admitted  to  the  fuel,  by  valves  in  the 
doors  which  enclose  the  ash-pit  and  fire-chainber,  and  by 
accurate  fitting  of  the  doors  and  valves  themselves.  Thirdly, 
to  bring  all  the  gaseous  productions  of  combustion,  as  they 
escape  from  the  fuel,  into  contact  with  the  largest  possible 
area  of  slowly-conducting  surface,  so  as  to  maintain  it  at  an 
equal  temperature;  and,  lastly,  to  make  the  smoke  enter  the 
chimney  with  the  smallest  velocity,  or  lowest  temperature, 
that  is  practically  consistent  with  the  first  condition.  In  no 
case  should  this  temperature  exceed  150°,  nor  should  the 
metallic  surface  ever  be  raised  higher  than  100°,  nor  the 
stream  of  air  issuing  from  it  exceed  70°.  In  every  case,  the 
combustion  is  regulated  by  limiting  the  supply  of  air;  and 
if  the  heating  surface  be  small,  the  fire  is  reduced  so  as  to 
produce  no  more  heat  than  can  be  carried  off  by  the  radia- 
tion and  conduction  of  such  heating  surface. 

The  author  of  "  A  Residence  on  the  Shores  of  the  Baltic," 
1841,  refers  to  these  stoves  in  the  following  terms: — 
"  Withiu  these  great  houses,  not  a  breath  of  cold  is  experi- 
enced. The  rooms  are  heated  by  stoves,  frequently  orna- 
mental rather  than  otherwise;  being  built  in  tower-like 
shapes,  story  over  story,  of  pure  white  porcelain,  in  various 
graceful  architectural  mouldings;  sometimes  surmounted 
with  classic  figures  of  great  beauty,  and  opening  with 
brass  doors,  kept  as  bright  as  if  they  were  of  gold.  In 
houses  of  less  display,  these  stoves  are  merely  a  projection 
in  the  wall,  colored  and  corniced  in  the  same  style  of  the 
apartment.  In  adjoining  rooms  they  are  generally  placed 
back  to  back,  so  that  the  same  fire  suffices  for  both.     These 


THE    AMERICAN    CO  DTLDER.  ]2T 

are  heated  but  once  in  the  twenty-four  hoars,  by  an  old  call- 
ban,  whose  business  during  the  winter  it  is  to  do  little  else. 
Each  stove  will  hold  a  heavy  armful  of  billet,  which  blazes, 
snaps,  and  cracks  most  merrily;  and  when  the  ashes  have 
been  carefully  turned  and  raked  with  what  is  termed  anof'cn- 
bd,  or  stove-fork,  so  that  no  unburnt  morsel  remains,  the 
chimney  aperture  is  closed  over  the  glowing  embers,  the 
brass  doors  firmly  shut,  and  in  about  six  hours  after  this,  the 
ve  is  at  the  hottest — indeed,  it  never  coo; 
The  useful  effect  of  this  stove  depends  very  much   on 
•  lining  in  the  room  the  air  already  heated  by  it.     A  small, 
open  fire  in  the  same  room  will  actually  diminish  the  heating 
effect  of  the  stove,  and  even  draw  the  warm  air  from  adjoin- 
ing  apartments.     In  the  houses  of  English  merchants  at  St. 
Petersburg,  open  fires  are  sometimes  introduced  into  rooms 
with  shoves;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  it  is  found  neces" 
■y  to  light  the  stoves  twice  a  day,  and  yet  the  houses  are 
cooler  than  those  of  the  Russians,  who  light  them  only  once, 
our  notions,  however,  a  cool  in-door  atmosphere  is  pre- 
ferable to  a  nauseous  stagnant  one,  such  as  the  Russians  and 
1      nans  are  accustomed  to  breathe  throughout  the  winter; 
r.iid  even  in  summer,  they  arc  very  averse  to  an  open  win- 
dow.    The  temperature  of  the  winter  apartments  is  kept 
nearly  always  at  65°,  and  as  every  part  of  the  room  is 
equally  warm,  the  inmates  have  no  occasion  to  crowd  round 
the  stove  as  we  do  round  the  fire.     "But  I  can  testify,'' 
Dr.  Buxton,  "  that  in  German  rooms  there  is  a  close- 
ness of  feeling,  to  a  person  accustomed  to  free  air,  which  is 
unpleasant,  if  not  unwholesome — no  change  of  air — the  win- 
dows closed  as  tight  as  can  be,  and  the  door  fits  as  exactly 
as  the  carpenter  can  make  it.     The  stove  is  air-tight  with 
i   gard  to  the  room,  and  there  is  nothing  to  occasion  a  cur- 
rent like  our  open  fires.     The  apartments  of  the  sick  almost 
invariably  smell  disagreeably.     I  do  not,  however,  recollect 
seeing  a  single  ventilator  in  Germany;  but  I  have  repeat- 
edly seen  double   windows."      As  ventilation  can  only  be 


128  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

procured  at  the  expense  of  heat,  the  people  prefer  retaining 
the  foul  air  to  expencliug  an  extra  portion  of  fuel.  In  the 
houses  of  the  poorer  classes  in  Russia,  where  the  windows 
are  single,  and  a  number  of  persons  occupy  a  small  stove- 
heated  room,  a  thick  icy  crust  forms  on  the  inside  of  the 
windows  during  frosty  weather,  arising  from  the  condensa- 
tion of  the  breath,  perspiration,  and  the  aqueous  fumes  of 
candles,  and  of  the  stove,  &c.  When  a  thaw  comes  on,  this 
icy  crust  is  converted  into  water,  and  a  deleterious  principle 
is  disengaged,  which  produces  effects  similar  to  those  arising 
from  the  fumes  of  charcoal.  Persons  so  affected  are  imme- 
diately carried  into  the  open  air,  and  placed  on  the  snow, 
with  very  little  clothing;  the  temples  and  the  region  of  the 
stomach  are  well  rubbed  with  snow,  and  cold  water  is  poured 
down  their  throats,  and  the  friction  is  continued  until  the 
livid  hue  of  the  skin  disappears,  .and  the  natural  color  is 
restored.  The  Chinese  are  wiser  in  this  respect  than  the 
Russians,  for,  although  their  rooms  in  winter  be  are  hot  and 
as  crowded,  they  have  two  openings  at  the  top  of  each  win- 
dow, which  are  never  allowed  to  be  closed,  and  through 
these  ventilation  is  carried  on. 

The  stove  last  described  belongs  rather  to  that  variety 
called  the  Swedish  stove,  than  to  the  Russian  or  German. 
In  the  Russian  or  German  stove,  the  smoke,  after  rising 
from  the  fuel,  recedes  into  the  flue,  and  becomes  cooled  by 
contact  with  the  walls  of  the  circulating  chambers,  and  the 
heat  is  by  this  means  retained  in  the  apartment  which 
would  otherwise  have  escaped  combined  with  the  vapor.  In 
the  Swedish  stove,  the  circumvolutions  of  the  smoke  are 
exposed  to  a  vivid  heat,  so  that  every  particle  of  soot 
undergoes  a  second  combustion  in  the  circulating  channels. 
Some  of  the  Swedish  stoves  have  from  four  to  nine  chan- 
nels for  the  circulation  of  the  smoke;  some  are  contrived  to 
receive  one  or  more  boilers,  and  others  to  act  as  ovens;  and 
they  all  greatly  economize  the  fuel.  According  to  Morveau, 
the  quantity  of  wood  which  is  consumed  in  twenty-three  days 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    Blll.l-KR.  129 

in  an  open  lire,  with  less  effect,  will  last  sixty-three  day-  in 
a  stove. 

In  erecting  the  ponderous  German  stoves,  it  is  necessary 
to  arrange  the  various  pieces  of  clay,  or  porcelain,  so  that 
no  part  should  crack  or  give  way,  and  thus  admit  the  smoke 
or  carbonic  acid  vapor  into  the  room.  When  the  parts 
are  put  together  with  cement,  or  held  by  iron  cramps,  a 
leakage  commonly  occurs  at  the  joinings,  where  different 
pieces  of  clay  are  differently  heated,  and  perhaps  were  of 
a  different  baking  when  made;  hence,  by  expanding 
nneqnally  and  working  on  each  other,  one  of  them  must 
give  way.  But  instead  of  making  the  joints  close  and 
using  any  cemeut,  the  best  method  is  to  make  each  upper 
piece  stand  in  a  groove  formed  in  the  piece  below  it,  and 
then  to  sprinkle  a  little  powdered  chalk  or  clay  over  it, 
which  will  effectually  prevent  the  passage  of  any  air,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  allow  space  for  any  expansion  or  contrac- 
tion at  the  joint. 

Some  valuable  experiments  by  Mr.  Bom.  are  quoted  by 
Mr.  13ernam,  to  show  the  effect  of  ascending  and  descend- 
ing flues  in  the  Russian  and  Swedish  stoves,  and  of  elbows 
or  bends  in  the  flue  of  the  common  Butch  stove.  From 
these  experiments,  it  appears  that  the  same  length  of  pipe 
is  much  more  efficacious  in  imparting  heat  to  a  room  when 
it  has  elbows  than  when  it  is  straight;  that  a  descending 
current  may  be  somewhat  more  efficacious  than  an  ascend- 
ing one,  but  is  about  equal  with  a  horizontal  one;  a  hori- 
zontal pipe,  with  the  same  number  of  elbows,  is  more 
efficacious  in  imparting  heat,  than  when  placed  vertically 
for  an  ascending  and  descending  current.  The  cause  of 
the  increased  effect  is  supposed  to  arise  from  the  shape  of 
the  pipe  forcing  the  heated  air  to  make  abrupt  turns  ;  in 
doing  which,  it  impinges  against  the  elbows  with  sufficient 
force  to  invert  its  internal  arrangement,  by  which  a  new 
stratum  of  hot  air  from  the  interior  of  the  current  is  brought 
more  frequently  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  pipe,  and  par- 

*6 


1'JO  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

ticularly  with  the  lower  half  of  the  horizontal  pipe,  which, 
from  various  causes,  gives  out  very  little  heat  to  the  room, 
without  the  aid  of  elbow-joints.  But  the  advantage 
gained  by  increasing  the  length  of  pipe  and  number  of 
joints,  has  a  limit  very  far  short  of  that  which  is  found  to  be 
necessary  to  impart  all,  or  the  greatest  part,  of  the  heat 
generated  to  the  air  of  the  room.  Only  five  parts  of  heat 
in  100  were  lost  by  using  13|  feet  of  pipe,  consisting  of  nine 
elbow-joints;  whereas,  eight  additional  elbow-joints,  and 
161  feet  additional  of  straight  pipe— in  all  28$  feet  of  pipe— 
were  required  to  save  these  five  parts,  and  prevent  their 
flowing  into  the  chimney.  By  diminishing  the  diameter  of 
the  pipe,  the  heating  effect  is  increased,  partly  from  the 
retardation  of  the  current,  and  partly  from  the  small  pipe 
exposing  a  greater  surface  to  the  air  with  the  same  quantity 
of  smoke  than  a  pipe  of  larger  diameter. 

An  excellent  stove  with  a  descending  current  was  con- 
structed by  Dr.  Franklin,  for  his  own  use. 

It  was  shaped  like  a  pear  or  vase,  and  stood  on  its  small 
end.  There  was  an  opening  in  the  top  to  put  iu  the  fuel. 
About  two-thirds  the  way  down  was  a  grate.  The  lower 
end  of  the  stove  opened  into  horizontal  flues,  which  commu- 
nicated with  the  chimney.  The  vase  and  flues  are  contained 
in  a  niche  formed  by  closing  up  the  fire-place,  and  there  is 
no  communication  between  the  room  and  the  flue,  except 
through  the  opening  in  the  lid  or  cover.  The  fire  is  first 
lighted  between  8  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  8  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  when  there  is  usually  a  draught  up  the  chim- 
ney, as  already  explained;  but  the  direction  of  the  draught 
had  better  be  ascertained  by  holding  a  flame  over  the  air- 
hole at  the  top  of  the  vase.  If  the  flame  be  drawn  strongly 
down,  the  fire  may  be  lighted  by  first  putting  in  a  little 
charcoal  on  the  grate;  then  lay  some  small  sticks  on  the 
charcoal  and  some  paper  on  the  sticks;  set  light  to  the 
paper  and  shut  down  the  lid;  the  air  will  pass  down  through 
the  air-hole,  and  blowing  the  flame  of  the  paper  through  the 


T1IK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BQILOBB.  131 

sticks,  kindle  them,  and  they,  in  their  turn,  will  kindle  the 
chareoal.    The  flame  and  hot  vapor  descending  through  the 

grating,  passes  into  the  chamber  and  through  the  second 
grating  in  its  bottom  into  the  ash-pit.  The  hot  current  will 
then  be  divided — one  portion  turning  to  the  left,  and  pass- 
ing iuto  horizontal  channels  and  entering  the  vertical  flue, 
will  be  conducted  iuto  the  chimney;  the  other  portion  will 
make  a  similar  circuit  on  the  left,  and  entering  another  flue, 
will  in  like  manner  pass  into  the  chimney.  The  surfaces  of 
the  vase  and  air-box,  and  the  part  of  the  horizontal  chan- 
nels exposed  to  the  room,  are  heated  by  these  circumvolu- 
tions of  the  vapor,  aud  the  air  warmed  by  contact  with 
them,  spreads  iuto  the  room.  The  large  pieces  of  coal  that 
fall  through  the  grating  on  the  vase,  are  caught  by  the 
second  grating,  and  the  ashes  fall  through  it  into  the  ash-pit 
box  The  success  of  this  excellent  contrivance  depends,  of 
course,  upon  maintaining  an  upward,  steady  draught  in  the 
chimney  flue,  so  that  the  ash-pit  drawer  aud  a  door  in  the 
chamber,  to  withdraw  the  cinders,  must  be  made  air-tight. 
In  order  to  determine  an  upward  current  on  lighting  the 
fire,  a  small  door  may  be  made  in  the  side  of  the  flue,  and  a 
piece  of  lighted  paper  inserted. 

A  combination  of  the  stove  and  the  grate,  combining  the 
heating  effect  of  the  stove  with  the  cheerful  appearance  and 
ventilating  properties  of  the  open  fire,  is  kuown  under  the 
name  of  the  stove-grate,  or  C/iapelle  ;  the  latter  name  being 
derived  from  its  resemblance  to  the  chapels  or  oratories  of 
the  great  churches. 

Professor  Robison  describes  it  as  the  most  perfect 
method  of  warming  an  apartment.  Its  construction  is  as 
follows:  In  the  great  ehimuey-piece  is  set  a  smaller  one, 
of  a  size  no  larger  than  is  sufficient  for  holding  the  fuel. 
The  sides  and  back  are  of  cast  iron,  and  are  kept  at  a  small 
distance  from  the  sides  and  bai  k  of  the  main  chimney-piece, 
and  continued  down  to  the  hearth;  so  that  the  ash-pit  is 
also  separate      The  pipe  or  chimney  of  the  stove-grate  is 


132  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

carried  up  behind  the  ornaments  of  the  mantel-piece,  until 
it  rises  above  the  mantel-piece  of  the  main  chimney-piece, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  register,  or  damper-plate,  turning  round 
a  transverse  axis.  The  best  form  of  this  register  is  that  of 
an  ordinary  fire-place,  with  its  axis  or  joint  close  at  the 
front,  so  that  when  open  or  turned  up,  the  burnt  air  and 
smoke,  striking  it  obliquely,  are  directed  with  certainty  into 
the  vent,  without  any  risk  of  reverberating  and  coming  out 
into  the  room.  All  the  rest  of  the  vent  is  shut  up  by  iron 
plates  or  brick-work  out  of  sight. 

The  fuel  being  in  immediate  contact  with  the  back  and 
sides  of  the  grate,  raises  them  to  a  great  heat,  and  they 
heat  the  air  contiguous  to  them.  This  heated  air  cannot 
get  up  the  vent,  because  the  passage  above  these  spaces  is 
shut  up.  It  therefore  comes  out  into  the  room  ;  some  of  it 
goes  into  the  real  fire-place,  and  is  carried  up  the  vent,  and 
the  rest  rises  to  the  ceiling,  and  is  diffused  over  the  room. 
The  heating  effect  of  this  stove  is  remarkable.  Less  than 
a  quarter  of  the  fuel  consumed  in  an  ordinary  fire-place  is 
sufficient,  and  this,  with  the  same  cheerful,  blazing  hearth,  and 
the  salutary  renewal  of  the  air.  Indeed,  it  often  requires 
attention  to  keep  the  room  cool.  The  heat  communicated 
to  those  parts  of  the  apparatus  which  are  in  contact  with 
the  fuel,  is  needlessly  great,  so  that  it  has  been  found  an 
improvement  to  line  this  part  with  thick  plates  of  cast  iron, 
or  with  tiles  of  fire-clay.  These  being  bad  conductors,  mod- 
erate the  heat  communicated  to  the  air.  If  the  heat  be 
still  found  too  great,  it  may  be  brought  under  perfect  man- 
agement, by  opening  passages  in  the  vent  for  the  spaces  on 
each  side,  so  that  the  air  heated  by  the  sides  of  the  stove- 
grate  may  ascend  directly  into  the  flue,  instead  of  escaping 
into  the  room.  These  passages  may  be  closed  by  valves, 
or  trap-doors,  moved  by  rods  concealed  behind  the  orna- 
ments of  the  fire-place. 

The  stove-grate  is  under  complete  control  as  to  tempera- 
ture.    A  cheerful  fire  mav  be  insured  within  five  minutes, 


THE   AMERICAN   COTTAGE    BU1LDBB  133 

simply  by  hanging  a  plate  of  iron  in  front  so  as  to  reach 
down  as  low  as  the  grate;  and  when  the  fire  is  by  its  means 
blown  up,  the  plate  may  be  taken  down  and  sent  out  of  the 
room,  or  set  up  behind  the  grate  out  of  sight.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  room  be  found  inconveniently  warm,  the 
temperature  may  be  cooled  down  within  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  by  opening  the  side-passages  to  any  extent,  for  the 
escape  of  the  hot  air.  In  this  arrangement  the  ash-pit  is 
enclosed,  because  the  light  ashes,  not  finding  a  ready  passage 
up  the  chimney,  are  apt  to  escape  into  the  room  with  the 
heated  air. 

Few  contrivances  for  warming  apartments  have  excited 
more  attention  and  discussion  of  late  years,  than  Dr. 
ARXorr's  stove.  The  principle  of  this  invention  consists,  in 
allowing  the  fuel  to  burn  very  slowly,  the  admission  of  air 
for  combustion  being  regulated  by  a  peculiar  contrivance. 
There  are  various  forms  and  modifications  of  this  stove,  but 
the  principle  is  the  same  in  all.  The  stove  consists  of  a 
square  or  cylindrical  box  of  iron,  lined  with  fire-clay,  with  a 
grating  near  the  bottom  for  the  fuel,  or  the  fuel  may  be 
contained  in  a  small  fire-box  within  the  stove.  Sometimes 
the  fuel  is  burned  within  a  hollow  cylinder  of  fire-clay,  and 
then  the  stove  is  not  lined  with  that  material.  There  is  an 
ash-pit  below  for  the  ashes,  and  the  products  of  combustion 
are  carried  off  by  a  vent.  The  chief  feature  of  this  stove  is, 
the  contrivance  by  which  the  air  is  admitted  to  the  fuel. 
When  the  stove-door  or  ash-pit  door  is  open,  the  combus- 
tion is  vivid;  but  when  these  are  perfectly  tight,  as  they 
ought  to  be,  then  the  air  is  admitted  by  a  regulator. 

A  mercurial  gauge  was  used  to  regulate  the  draught 
of  the  stove.  A  glass  tube  was  used,  partially  filled 
with  mercury;  on  the  top  of  the  mercury  was  placed  a 
float,  from  which  proceeded  an  upright  rod,  kept  steady  by 
passing  through  a  support;  from  this  upright  rod  descended 
another  wire,  terminated  by  an  ordinary  plate-valve  in  the 
tube  of  the  stove.     When  the  heat  is  great,  the  expansion 


134  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  the  mercury  raises  the  float,  which  raises  the  rods  and 
the  plate-valve,  bringing  it  in  nearer  contact  with  the 
mouth  of  the  vent  by  which  less  air  is  admitted  to  the 
stove.  When  the  room  is  cold,  the  operation  is  exactly 
the  reverse — opening  instead  of  closing  the  valve.  There 
were  a  number  of  alterations  or  improvements  on  this 
arrangement.  In  some,  the  shape  of  the  tube  was  such, 
that  the  expansion  of  the  air  in  the  tube  caused  the  mercury 
to  rise  and  fall. 

These  arrangements  are  liable  to  the  objections  already 
stated,  viz:  that  the  air  of  the  room,  though  sufficiently 
heated,  is  nevertheless  stagnant.  Another  objection  is 
that  which  is  considered  its  chief  merit,  viz:  the  slow  com- 
bustion of  the  fuel,  whereby  carbonic  oxide  is  generated, 
and,  from  the  small  draught  of  the  chimnev,  is  liable  to 
escape  in  the  room. 

The  method  of  warming  buildings  by  steam,  depends  on  the 
rapid  condensation  of  steam  into  water  when  admitted  into 
any  vessel  which  is  not  so  hot  as  itself.  At  the  moment  of 
condensation,  the  latent  heat  of  the  steam  is  given  out  to 
the  vessel  containing  it,  and  this  diffuses  the  heat  into  the 
surrounding  space. 

The  first  practical  application  of  this  principle  was  made 
by  James  Watt,  in  the  winter  of  1784-5,  who  fitted  up  an 
apparatus  for  warming  his  study.  The  room  was  18  feet 
long,  14  feet  wide,  and  8|  feet  high.  The  apparatus  con- 
sisted of  a  box,  or  heater,  made  of  two  side-plates  of  tinned 
iron,  about  Z\  feet  long  by  2|  feet  wide,  separated  about 
an  inch  by  stays,  and  jointed  round  the  edges  by  tin  plate. 
This  heater  was  placed  on  its  edge,  near  the  floor  of  the 
room.  It  was  furnished  with  a  cock  to  let  out  the  air,  and 
was  supplied  with  steam  by  a  pipe  from  a  boiler,  entering 
at  its  lower  edge;  and  by  this  pipe,  the  condensed  water  also 
returned  to  the  boiler.  The  heating  effect  of  this  apparatus 
was  not  so  great  as  was  expected,  in  consequence,  perhaps, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAOJE    BUILDER.  135 

of  the  bright  metallic  surfaces  of  the  box  not  being  favor- 
able to  radiation. 

In  1791,  Mr.  IIoyi.e,  of  Halifax,  took  out  a  patent  in 
England  for  heating  by  steam  pipes,  and  his  method  seems 
to  have  been  the  foundation  for  subsequent  attempts.  The 
steam  was  at  once  conveyed  from  the  boiler,  by  a  pipe,  to 
the  highest  elevation  of  the  building  required  to  be  heated; 
and,  from  that  point,  by  a  gentle  declivity,  the  condensed 
water  flowed  into  the  supply-cistern  of  the  boiler.  The 
effect  of  the  pipes  (which  were  of  copper)  was  too  small, 
and  as  the  apparatus  was  constantly  getting  out  of  order, 
it  was  pronounced  a  failure. 

In  1793,  Mr.  Green  took  out  a  patent  in  England  for 
a  different  method,  which  consisted  in  enclosing  a  hollow 
vessel,  or  worm-pipe,  in  a  boiler  containing  hot  water  or 
steam.  The  air,  on  its  way  to  the  room  to  be  warmed,  was 
made  to  pass  through  this  worm,  and  was  thus  heated  to 
an  agreeable  temperature.  By  another  method,  pipes  from 
a  steam-boiler  were  enclosed  in  other  pipes,  and,  in  the 
interval  between  them,  the  air  was  heated  on  its  passage  to 
the  room.  This  apparatus  was  erected  in  a  mansion  on 
Wimbledon  Common.  The  encased  pipe  was  fixed  along 
the  ceiling  of  the  basement  floor,  with  an  inclination  of  two 
inches  in  68  feet.  The  inner  steam-pipe  was  three  inches  in 
diameter,  the  outer  pipe  nine  inches,  and  both  of  copper. 
The  lower  end  of  the  casing-pipe  was  left  open  for  the  cold 
air  to  enter;  the  other  end  was  joined  to  a  pipe  four  inches 
in  diameter,  with  three  horizontal  elbows,  that  rose  about 
twelve  inches,  where  it  opened  into  the  first  suite  of  rooms 
that  were  to  be  heated.  It  was  supposed  that  the  air  would 
enter  at  one  end  in  great  quantity,  and  flow  out  through 
the  small  pipe  at  the  other  end  into  the  rooms;  the  effect, 
however,  was  so  feeble,  that  no  useful  heating  was  produced. 

About  this  time,  steam  was  introduced  into  hot-boosef, 
not  by  circulating  in  pipes,  but  by  being  discharged  into  the 
bodv  of  the  hot-house,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  raise  its 


136  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

temperature  and  moisten  the  air  to  such  a  degree,  that  the 
plants  grew  rapidly  and  luxuriantly.  It  is  also  said  to  have 
had  the  effect  of  destroying  insects. 

In  the  winter  of  1795-6,  Mr.  Boulton  erected  a  steam 
heating  apparatus  in  the  library  of  his  friend,  Dr.  Wither- 
ing, "which,  in  point  of  heating,  answered  perfectly;  but 
the  pipes  being  made  of  copper,  and  soft-soldered  in  some 
places,  the  smell  of  the  solder  was  rather  unpleasant  to  the 
Doctor,  who  was  then  in  an  infirm  state  of  health  with 
diseased  lungs.  The  apparatus  was,  in  consequence,  re- 
moved to  Soho,  where  Mr.  Boulton  proposed  erecting  it  in 
his  own  house,  in  which  he  was  making  alterations  about  this 
time,  and  had  it  in  view  to  heat  every  room  in  the  house  by 
steam.  A  boiler  was  put  up  for  that  purpose  in  one  of  the 
cellars,  but  some  circumstance  occurred  to  prevent  his  con- 
tinuing the  plan.  The  subject,  however,  underwent  frequent 
discussions,  and  the  different  modes  of  effecting  it  were 
amply  considered  by  Messrs.  Boulton  and  Watt,  as  was 
known  to  many  of  their  friends — no  secret  having  been  made, 
of  calculations  of  surface,  or  the  modes  of  applying  them." 

About  the  end  of  the  year  1199,  Mr.  Lee,  of  Manches- 
ter, under  the  direction  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  erected  a 
heating  apparatus  of  cast-iron  pipes,  which  served  also  as 
supports  to  the  floor.  This  answered  perfectly,  and  was,  in 
point  of  materials  and  construction,  the  earliest  of  its  kind. 
Mr.  Lee  afterwards  had  his  house  heated  by  steam,  and 
the  staircase,  hall,  and  passages,  were  warmed  by  the 
apparatus.  It  was  placed  in  the  underground  story,  and 
consisted  of  a  vertical  cast-iron  cylinder,  surrounded  by  a 
casing  of  brick-work,  leaving  a  space  of  two  and  a  half 
inches  all  round,  and  having  openings  below,  to  admit  the 
air.  This  casing  was  surrounded,  at  the  dist  ance  of  three 
or  four  inches,  by  another  wall,  forming  a  sort  of  well.  The 
colder  and  heavier  air  falling  to  the  bottom  of  this  well, 
entered  by  the  holes  into  the  space,  where  it  came  in 
contact  with  the  cylinder,    and,    being  heated,  ascended. 


TilK   AMERICAN    COTTAGI    BUILDER,  131 

The  entrance  of  the  steam  into  the  cylinder  was  regulated 
by  a  valve,  the  air  being  allowed  to  escape  by  a  stop-cot  k, 
while  the  steam  was  entering;  the  condensed  water  escaping 
by  a  pipe.     The  transmission  of  the  heated  air  was  regu* 

lated  by  a  valve  on  the  top  of  the  brick-work.  This 
apparatus  was  so  effective,  and  heated  the  staircase  to  Bnch 
a  degree,  that  after  it  had  been  in  operation  a  short  time, 
it  was  necessary  to  suspend  its  action  by  closing  the  valve 
which  admitted  steam  into  the  cylinder. 

The  method  of  heating  buildings  by  steam  has  scarcely 
advanced  since  the  time  when  Messrs.  Boultox  and  Watt 
erected  their  apparatus  for  the  purpose,  aud  Mr.  Buchanan 
wrote  a  practical  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  hot-water 
apparatus  has,  for  the  most  part,  superseded  the  steam 
apparatus,  so  that  our  details  need  not  be  very  full. 

In  establishments  where  a  steam-engine  is  in  daily  use, 
the  steam-pipes  may  be  supplied  from  the  engine-boiler,  its 
dimensions  being  enlarged  at  the  rate  of  one  cubic  foot  for 
every  2,000  cubic  feet  of  space,  to  be  heated  to  the  temper- 
ature of  70°  or  80°.     A  boiler  adapted  to  an  engine  of 
one-horse  power,  is  sufficient  for  heating  50,000  cubic  feet 
of  space.      Hence  an  apparatus  specially  erected  for  the 
purpose  need  not  be  of  very  large  size,  nor  is  the  quantity 
of  fuel  consumed  great.     If  the  fire  under  a  small  boiler  be 
carefully  managed,   141bs.  of  Newcastle  coal  will  convert 
one  cubic  foot  of  water  at  50°,  into  1,800  cubic  feet  of 
steam  at  210°;  and  only  12lbs.  of  coal   are  required   to 
convert  the    same  quantity  of  water  into  steam  at  212°. 
The  shape  of  the  boiler,  and  the  method  of  sitting  it,  must 
also  be  considered,  and  the  furnace  must  be  arranged  bo  as 
to  admit  no  more  air  than  is  required  to  support  the  <"in- 
Ijii-tion.     The  hot  air  must  also  be  kept  in  contact  with  the 
sides  of  the  boiler,  until  as  much  of  the  heat  as  possible  be 
abstracted  from  it.     In  such  an  arrangement,  according  to 
Dr.   Assort,  nearly  half  of  all  the  heat  produced  in  the 
combustion  is  applied  to  use. 


138  TIIK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 

In  estimating-  the  extent  of  surface  of  steam-pipe  required 
to  raise  the  rooms  to  the  proper  temperature,  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  how  the  heat  is  expended.  This  is  done  in  three 
ways:  1.  Through  the  thin  glass  of  the  windows.  2.  More 
slowly  through  the  walls,  floors  and  ceiling;  and  3.  In 
combination  with  the  air  which  escapes  at  the  joinings  of 
the  windows  and  doors,  or  through  openings  expressly  made 
for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  The  amount  of  heat  lost  in 
this  way  has  been  variously  estimated  by  different  writers, 
but  Dr.  Arnott  states  it  thus:  That  in  a  winter  day,  with 
the  external  temperature  at  10°  below  freezing,  to  maintain 
in  an  ordinary  apartment  the  agreeable  and  healthful  tem- 
perature of  60°,  there  must  be  a  surface  of  steam-pipe,  or 
other  steam-vessel  heated  to  200°  ( which  is  the  average 
surface-temperature  of  vessels  filled  with  steam  of  212°), 
about  one  foot  square  for  every  six  feet  of  single  glass 
window  of  usual  thickness;  as  much  for  every  120  feet  of 
wall,  roof  and  ceiling  of  ordinary  material  and  thickness; 
and  as  much  for  every  six  cubic  feet  of  hot  air  escaping  per 
minute  as  ventilation,  and  replaced  by  cold  air.  A  window, 
with  the  usual  accuracy  of  fitting,  allows  about  eight  feet  of 
air  to  pass  by  it  in  a  minute,  and  there  should  be  for  ven- 
tilation, at  least  three  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  each  person 
in  the  room.  According  to  this  view,  the  quantity  of 
steam-pipe,  or  vessel,  needed,  under  the  temperature  sup- 
posed, for  a  room  10  feet  square  by  12  feet  high,  with  two 
windows,  each  1  feet  by  3,  and  with  ventilation,  by  them, 
or  otherwise,  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
would*  be: 

FEET. 

For  42  square  feet  of  glass  (requiring  1  foot  for  G) 7 

"  1,238  feet  of  wall,  floor  and  ceiling  (requiring  1  foot  for  120  -     -     10^ 
"  16  feet  per  minute  for  ventilation,  (requiring  1  foot  for  6)    -    -    2] 


Total  of  heating  surface  required 20 

Which  is  20  feet  of  pipe,  4  inches  in  diameter,  or  any  other 
vessel  having  the  same  extent  of  surface, — as  a  box  two  feet 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE   BUILDER.  139 

high,  with  square  top  and  bottom  of  about  eighteen  indies. 

It  may  be  noticed,  that  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  heated 
surface  would  suffice  for  a  larger  room,  provided  the  quan- 
tity of  window-glass,  and  of  the  ventilation,  were  not 
greater;  for  the  extent  of  wall,  owing  to  its  slow-conducting 
quality,  produces  comparatively  little  effect. 

The  same  excellent  authority  also  supplies  the  following 
illustrations:  A  heated  surface,  as  of  iron,  glass,  &c.,  at 
temperatures  likely  to  be  met  with  in  rooms,  if  exposed  to 
colder  air,  gives  out  heat  with  rapidity,  nearly  proportioned 
to  the  excess  of  its  temperature  above  that  of  the  air  around 
it,  less  than  half  the  heat  being  given  out  by  radiation,  and 
more  than  half  by  contact  of  the  air.  Thus,  if  the  external 
surface  of  an  iron  pipe,  heated  by  steam,  be  200°,  while  the 
air  of  the  room  to  be  warmed  by  it,  is  at  GO0,  showing  an 
excess  of  temperature  in  the  pipe  of  1-40°,  such  pipe  will  give 
out  nearly  seveu  times  as  much  heat  in  a  minute  as  wheu  its 
temperature  falls  to  80°,  because  the  excess  is  reduced  to 
20°,  or  -f  of  what  it  was.  Supposing  window  glass  to  cool 
at  the  same  rate  as  iron  plate,  oue  foot  of  the  steam  pipe 
would  give  out  as  much  heat  as  would  lie  dissipated  from  the 
room  into  the  external  air  by  about  five  feet  of  window,  the 
outer  surface  of  which  were  30°  warmer  than  that  air.  But 
as  glass  both  conducts  and  radiates  heat  about  \  slower  than 
iron,  the  external  surface  of  the  glass  ot  a  window  of  a  room, 
heated  to  60°,  would,  in  an  atmosphere  of  22°,  be  under 
50°,  leaving  an  excess  of  less  than  30° ;  and  about  six  feet 
of  glass  would  be  required  to  dissipate  the  heat  given  off  by 
one  foot  of  the  steam  pipe.  In  double  windows,  whether  of 
two  sashes,  or  of  double  panes,  only  half  an  inch  apart  in 
the  same  sash,  the  loss  of  heat  is  only  about  one-fourth  of 
what  it  is  through  a  single  window.  It  is  also  known  that 
oue  foot  of  black  or  brown  iron  surface,  the  iron  being  of 
moderate  thickness,  with  110°  excess  of  temperature,  cools  in 
one  second  of  time  15G  cubic  inches  of  water,  one  degree. 
From  this  standard  fact,  and  the  law  above  given,  a  rough 


140  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

calculation  may  be  made  for  any  other  combination  of  time, 
surface,  excess,  and  quantity.  And  it  is  to  be  recollected, 
that  the  quantity  of  heat  which  changes,  in  any  degree,  the 
temperature  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  produces  the  same 
change  on  2,850  cubic  feet  of  atmospheric  air. 

The  arrangement  of  the  steam-pipes  has  next  to  be  con- 
sidered. A  common  method  is  that  in  which  the  pipe  from 
the  boiler  rises  at  once  to  the  upper  story.  From  this  pipe 
proceed  horizontal  branches,  to  each  floor.  Each  branch  is 
furnished  with  a  stop-cock,  by  which  means  the  steam  can  be 
turned  on  or  off  at  pleasure,  in  any  one  of  the  three  stories. 
The  water  arising  from  the  condensation  of  the  steam  in 
each  pipe,  flows  back  into  the  boiler  along  the  ascending 
pipe.  But  if  it  be  not  convenient  to  place  the  boiler  below  the 
level  of  the  lowest  floor,  the  condensed  steam  is  received 
into  a  reservoir,  from  which  it  is  pumped  into  the  feeding- 
cistern.  At  the  extremity  of  each  horizontal  branch,  is 
a  stop-cock,  which  is  opened,  when  the  steam  is  filling,  to 
allow  the  air  to  blow  off. 

It  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  condensed  water  from  accu- 
mulating in  the  pipes,  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to 
maintain  them  at  a  uniform  temperature.  Moreover,  this 
water  condenses  the  steam  so  rapidly,  that  a  vacuum  is 
formed  within  the  boiler  and  pipes  ;  and  should  they  not  be 
firm  enough  to  resist  the  external  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere, the  boiler  may  be  crushed  in,  and  the  whole  system 
deranged.  By  a  special  arrangement,  the  condensed  water 
is  collected  at  certain  parts  of  the  system,  where  it  con- 
tinues to  give  out  heat  after  the  steam  has  ceased  to  flow  into 
the  pipes.  In  such  cases,  stop-cocks  may  be  employed,  so 
arranged  as  to  allow  the  water  to  be  afterwards  withdrawn 
from  the  pipes  ;  the  same  cocks  also  serve  for  letting  the 
air  out  of  the  pipes  when  the  steam  is  first  admitted  ;  but 
when  the  water  is  returned  into  the  boiler,  the  advantage 
of  this  supply  of  heat  cannot  be  reserved  ;  and  in  these 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BTOLOKB.  141 

cases,  a  self-acting   apparatus  is  used  for  taking  off   the 
water  of  condensation. 

The  various  methods  of  connecting  the  cast-iron  pipes 
are  by  the  flanch-joint,  and  the  spigot  and  faucet,  or  socket 
joint.    Mr.  Buchanan  gives  minute  directions  for  these,  but 
he  seems  inclined  to  recommend  the  thimble-joint.     Care 
must/of  course,  be  taken  in  joining  the  pipes,  to  allow  room 
for  expansion.     This  is  sometimes  done  in  the  thimble-joint, 
in  which  the  adjoining  ends  of  the  pipes  are  turned  true  on 
the  outside,  and  have  a  thimble,  or  short  cylinder  of  wrought- 
iron,  to  enclose  them,  leaving  only  a  small  space  for  the 
current.     A  piece  of  tin,  or  inner  thimble,  is  interposed,  and 
made  to  fit  well  to  the  turned  parts  of  the  pipes,  which, 
under  the  influence  of  heat  or  cold,  work  forwards  or  back- 
wards, like  a  piston  in  a  cylinder.     In  a  range  of  pipes  120 
feet  in  length,  there  was  a  motion  from  expansion  of  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch;  but  the  usual  allowance  for  the  expan- 
sion of  cast-iron  pipes,  is  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  10  feet, 
or  jj-o-of  their  length.     Cast-iron  heated  from  32°  to  212°, 
expands  -y  J-q  of  its  length,  which  is  nearly  one  and  three- 
eighths  of  an   inch  in  100  feet.     A  similar  expansion-joint 
applied  to  the  spigot  and  faucet  connection,  answered  very 
well.     Lead  cannot  be  substituted  for  tin  or  iron  cement  in 
joints,  for,  by  frequent    heating,  it  becomes  permanently 
expanded,  while  the  iron  pipes  always  contracting  in  cool- 
ing, and  the  lead  not  participating  in  the  contraction,  the 
joints   soon   get   loose.     Count    RcMFor.n   introduced    an 
expansion-drum,  of  thin  copper,  between  the  extremities  of 
two  pipes,  which  in  elongating,  pressed  the  sides  of  the  drum 
inwards,  and  in  cooling  drew  them  outwards.     The  pipes 
should  not  be  connected  with  any  part  of  the  building,  but 
be  quite  independent  thereof;  all  the  horizontal  branches 
should  be  supported  on  rollers,  and  nothing  done  to  inter- 
fere with  the  expansion  of  the  different  pa#ts. 

In  private  dwellings,  where  the  appearance  of  the  pipes 
is  objectionable,  they  may  be  concealed  behind  perforated 


142  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

mouldings,  or  skirtings  or  cornices;  or  the  steam  may 
be  brought  into  ornamental  vases  dispersed  about  the  room, 
each  furnished  with  a  small  stop-cock,  to  allow  the  air  to 
escape  while  the  steam  is  entering. 

The  method  of  heating  buildings  by  steam  has  long  been 
superseded  by  hot  water  apparatus  of  various  kinds;  which, 
however,  may  be  resolved  into  two  distinct  forms  or  modi- 
cations,  dependant  on  the  temperature  of  the  water.  In  the 
first  form  of  apparatus,  the  water  is  at  or  below  the 
ordinary  temperature  of  boiling.  In  this  arrangement  the 
pipes  do  not  rise  to  any  considerable  height  above  the  level 
of  the  boiler,  so  that  the  apparatus  need  not  be  of  extraor- 
dinary strength.  One  pipe  rises  from  the  top  of  the  boiler, 
and  traverses  the  places  to  be  warmed,  and  returns  to 
terminate  near  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  Along  this  tube 
the  heated  water  circulates,  giving  out  its  heat  as  it  pro- 
ceeds. The  boiler  may  be  open  or  closed.  If  open,  the 
tube,  when  once  filled  with  water,  acts  as  a  siphon,  having 
an  ascending  current  of  hot  water  in  the  hotter  leg,  and  a 
descending  current  of  cooled  water  in  the  longer  leg.  If 
the  boiler  be  closed,  the  siphon-action  disappears,  and  the 
boiler  with  its  tubes  become  as  one  vessel.  In  the  second 
form  of  apparatus,  the  water  is  heated  to  350°  and  upwards, 
and  is,  therefore,  constantly  seeking  to  burst  out  as  steam, 
with  a  force  of  701bs.  and  upwards  on  the  square  inch,  and 
can  only  be  confined  by  very  strong  or  high-pressure  appa- 
ratus. The  pipe  is  of  iron,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  made 
very  thick.  The  length  extends  to  1,000  feet  and  upwards, 
and  where  much  surface  is  required  for  giving  out  heat,  the 
pipe  is  coiled  up  like  a  screw.  A  similar  coil  is  also  sur- 
rounded by  the  burning  fuel,  and  serves  the  place  of  an  oiler. " 

The  heating  of  rooms  by  the  circulation  of  hot  water  in 
pipes,  seems  to  have  occupied  the  attention  of  a  few  specula- 
tive individuals^ong  before  the  attempt  was  actually  made. 
The  first  successful  trial  is  assigned  to  Sir  Martin  Trie- 
wat-d,  a  Swede,  who  resided  for  many  years  at  Newcastle- 


TQE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDRE.  143 

on-Tync,  and  abort  the  year  1716,  described  a  method  for 
warming  a  green-house  by  hot  water.  The  water  was  boiled 
outside  the  building,  and  then  conducted  by  a  pipe  into  a 
chamber  under  the  plants. 

But  the  first  successful  attempt,  on  a  large  scale,  was 
in  France,  in  1777,  by  M.  Boxnemaix,  in  an  apparatus  for 
hatching  chickens,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  market 
of  Paris.  The  water  was  heated  in  a  boiler— ascended  a 
ffeed-pipe,  and  ran  through  the  heating-pipes  which  traversed 
the  hatching-chamber,  fore  and  aft. 

These  heating-pipes  have  a  gradual  slope  towards  the 
boiler,  to  which  the  water  returns  by  the  pipe,  carried  near- 
ly to  the  bottom.  In  this  way  the  water,  cooled  by  being 
circulated  through  a  long  series  of  pipes,  is  being  con- 
stantly returned  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  boiler,  where  it 
receives  a  fresh  amount  of  heat,  and  being  thus  rendered 
lighter,  rises  up  the  pipe,  and  descends  the  inclined  planes 
of  the  pipes,  losing  a  portion  of  its  heat  on  the  way,  and  at 
the  same  time  increasing  in  density  ;  the  velocity  of  the 
current  depending  on  the  difference  between  the  temper- 
ature of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  that  in  the  descending- 
pipe:  At  the  highest  point  of  the  apparatus  is  a  pipe,  fur- 
Dished  with  a  stop-cock,  for  the  escape  of  the  air  which  the 
cold  water  holds  in  solution  on  entering  the  boiler.  The 
water  that  rises  along  with  it  is  received  into  the  vessel. 

The  arrangements  of  this  apparatus  are  excellent  ;  they 
have  been  taken  as  a  model  in  many  subsequent  methods, 
although  the  merits  of  the  inventor  have  not  always  been 
acknowledged.  Whatever  be  the  arrangement  adopted  for 
warming  buildings  by  this  method,  two  considerations  must 
be  specially  attended  to,  namely,  sufficient  strength  to  bear 
the  hydrostatic  pressure,  and  freedom  of  motion  for  currents 
of  water,  of  varying  temperatures,  and  consecpiently  of  vary- 
ing densities.  As  fluids  transmit  their  pressure  equally 
in  every  diri  ction,  a  column  of  water  rising  from  a  strong 
vessel  to  a  certain  height,  may  be  made  to  burst  the  vessel 


144  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

with  enormous  force.  Thus,  a  tube  whose  sectional  area  is 
one  inch,  rising  to  the  height  of  34i  feet  from  the  bottom  of 
a  vessel  of  water,  will,  if  the  tube  be  also  full  of  water,  exert 
a  bursting  pressure  on  every  square  inch  of  the  inner  surface 
of  such  vessel  of  one  atmosphere,  or  15  lbs.  If  the  sec- 
tional area  of  the  tube  be  increased,  the  pressure  remains  the 
same,  because  it  is  distributed  over  a  larger  surface  of  the  ves- 
sel. If  a  boiler  be  3  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  deep, 
with  a  pipe  28  feet  high  from  the  top  of  the  boiler,  when  the 
apparatus  is  filled  with  water,  there  will  be  a  pressure  on 
the  boiler  of  66,8161bs.,  or  very  nearly  30  tons.  This  will 
show  the  necessity  for  great  strength  in  the  boiler,  especially 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  effect  of  heat  upon  it  is  to 
diminish  the  cohesive  force  of  its  particles.  But  even  sup- 
posing the  apparatus  were  to  burst,  no  danger  would  arise, 
because  water,  unlike  steam,  has  but  a  very  limited  range 
of  elasticity.  The  boiler  just  described  would  contain  about 
15  gallons  of  water,  which,  under  a  pressure  of  one  atmos- 
phere on  the  square  inch  would  be  compressed  about  one 
cubic  inch  ;  and  if  the  apparatus  were  to  burst,  the  expan- 
sion would  only  be  one  cubic  inch,  and  the  only  effect  of 
bursting,  would  be  a  cracking  in  some  part  of  the  boiler, 
occasioning  a  leakage  of  the  water. 

The  circulation  of  water  is  brought  about  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  convection  already  explained  in  the  case  of  air. 
When  heat  is  applied  to  a  vessel  containing  water,  the  prin- 
ciple of  conduction  altogether  fails,  for  water  is  so  imperfect 
a  conductor  of  heat,  that  if  the  fire  be  applied  at  the  top, 
the  water  may  be  made  to  boil  there  without  greatly  affect- 
ing the  temperature  below.  But  when  the  fire  is  applied 
below,  the  particles  in  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  boiler, 
being  first  affected  by  the  heat,  expand,  and  thus  becoming 
specifically  lighter  than  the  surrounding  particles,  ascend, 
and  other  particles  take  their  place,  which  in  like  manner 
becoming  heated,  ascend  also;  and  the  process  goes  on  in 
this  way  until  the  whole  contents  of  the  boiler  have  received 


THK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BVH.DER.  14.T 

an  accession  of  temperature.  If  the  process  be  continued 
long  enough,  the  water  will  boil  and  pass  off  In  steam;  if 
the  boiler  be  closed  in  on  all  sides,  so  as  to  prevent  th<> 
escape  of  steam,  it  will  buret  with  a  fearful  explosion.  If 
a  tube  full  of  water  rise  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  in  a  verti- 
cal line  to  any  required  height,  and  then  by  a  series  of 
gentle  curves  descend,  and  euter  near  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler,  the  process  of  heating  is  still  the  same.  The  par- 
ticles of  water  first  heated  will  rise,  and,  in  doing  so,  distri- 
bute their  heat  to  other  particles,  which  will  also  rise; 
these,  in  their  turn,  will  lose  a  portion  of  their  heat  to  other 
particles,  which  rise  in  their  turn;  until  at  length  an  equili- 
briutn  is  established.  But  as  the  source  of  heat  is  perma- 
nent, other  particles  are  rapidly  brought  under  its  action, 
and,  being  heated,  ascend.  By  continuing  the  process  a 
short  time,  the  particles  in  the  vertical  tube  become  heated, 
and,  by  their  expansion,  exert  a  pressure  on  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  lateral  branches  ;  this,  together  with  the 
increasing  levity  of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  establishes  a 
current,  and  the  water  from  the  branches  begin  to  set  in, 
in  the  direction  of  the  boiler;  the  water  in  the  lowest  branch, 
where  it  enters  the  boiler,  supplying  colder  and  heavier 
particles  every  moment  to  take  the  place  of  the  warmer  and 
lighter  particles  which  are  being  urged  upwards  along  the 
vertical  pipe. 

Now,  to  ascertain  the  force  with  which  the  water  returns 
to  the  boiler,  we  must  know  the  specific  gravities  of  the  two 
columns  of  water,  the  ascending  and  the  descending,  and 
the  difference  between  them  will  be  the  effective  pressure,  or 
motive  power.  This  can  be  done  by  ascertaining  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  in  the  descending 
pipe.  When  the  difference  amounts  to  only  a  few  degrees, 
the  difference  in  weight  is  very  small,  but  quite  sufficient,  in 
a  well-arranged  apparatus,  to  maintain  a  constant  circulation. 
For  example,  suppose  an  apparatus  to  be  at  work,  in  which 
the  temperature  in  the  descending  pipe  is  170°,  and  the 

7 


146  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

temperature  of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  the  height  of  which 
is  12  inches,  is  118°.  The  difference  in  weight  is  8.16 
grains  on  each  square  inch  of  the  section  of  the  return-pipe. 

Mr.  Hood  made  an  experiment  by  taking  a  boiler  two 
feet  high,  containing  30  gallons  of  water,  and  letting  two 
4-inch  pipes  of  one  hundred  yards  length,  running  parallel, 
enter  the  boiler — one  three  inches  from  the  top  and  the 
other  three  inches  from  the  bottom — so  connected  at  their 
farther  end  that  the  water  could  flow  through  and  return 
freely,  and  found  that  there  was  190  gollons,  or  l,9001bs. 
of  water,  kept  in  motion  by  a  force  equal  to  one-third  of  an 
ounce. 

The  amount  of  motive  power  increases  with  the  size  of 
the  pipe.  The  power  being  four  times  as  great  in  a  pipe 
of  four  inches  in  diameter  as  in  one  of  two  inches,  as  the 
former  contains  four  times  as  much  water  as  the  latter;  but 
as  the  resistance  increases  equally  with  the  power,  the 
actual  working  effect  is  the  same  in  pipes  of  all  sizes.  The 
motive  power  is  increased  by  allowing  the  water  to  cool 
before  it  returns  to  the  boiler,  or  by  increasing  the  height 
of  the  ascending  and  descending  columns  of  water.  By 
doubling  the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  flow- 
pipe  and  the  return-pipe,  the  same  increase  of  power  is 
obtained  as  by  doubling  the  vertical  height;  and  by  tripling 
the  difference  in  temperature,  the  same  effect  is  produced  as 
by  tripling  the  vertical  height.  The  difference  in  tempera- 
ture may  also  be  increased  by  increasing  the  quantity  of 
pipe,  or  by  diminishing  its  diameter,  so  as  to  expose  a 
larger  amount  of  surface,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
water  contained  in  it,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  part  with  more 
heat  within  a  given  time.  But  the  method  which  must  be 
principally  depended  on,  when  additinal  power  is  required 
to  overcome  any  unusual  obstruction,  is  to  increase  the 
height  of  the  ascending  column. 

Another  method  of  estimating  the  velocity  of  motion  of 
the  water  of  a  hot-water  apparatus,  is  to  regard  the  two 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  J -IT 

portions  of  the  system,  as  the  lighter  and  heavier  fluids  in 
the  two  limbs  of  a  barometrical  aCriometer.  This  instru- 
ment is  an  inverted  siphon,  and  its  use  is  to  ascertain,  in  a 
rough  way,  the  specific  gravities  of  immiscible  fluids.  If 
mercury  be  poured  into  one  limb,  and  water  into  the  other, 
and  the  stop-cock  at  the  centre  be  turned,  so  as  to  establish 
a  communication  between  them,  it  will  be  found  that  an 
inch  of  mercury,  in  one  limb  will  balance  thirteen-and-a- 
half  inches  of  water,  in  the  other  limb;  thus  showing  that 
the  densities,  or  specific  gravities,  of  the  two  fluids,  are  as 
thirteen-and-a-half  to  one.  If  oil  be  used  instead  of  mer- 
cury, it  will  require  ten  inches  of  oil  to  balance  nine 
inches  of  water.  Or  if  equal  bulks  of  oil  and  water  be 
poured  into  the  limbs  of  the  siphon,  and  the  stop-cock  be 
then  turned,  the  oil  will  be  forced  upwards  with  a  velocity 
equal  to  that  which  a  solid  body  would  acquire  in  falling, 
by  its  own  gravity,  through  a  space  equal  to  the  additional 
height  which  the  lighter  body  would  occupy  in  the  siphon. 
Xow,  as  the  relative  weights  of  water  and  oil  are  as  nine  to 
ten,  the  oil  in  one  limb  will  be  forced  upwards  by  the 
water  with  a  velocity  equal  to  that  which  a  falling  body  (in 
this  case,  the  water)  would  acquire  in  falling  through  one 
inch  of  space,  and  this  velocity  is  equal  to  138  feet  per 
minute. 

In  estimating  the  velocity  of  motion  of  the  water  in  a 
hot  water  apparatus,  the  same  rule  will  apply.  "  If  the 
average  temperature  be  110°,  the  difference  between  the 
temperature  of  the  ascending  and  descending  columns  8°, 
and  the  height  ten  feet;  when  similar  weights  of  water  are 
placed  in  each  column,  the  hottest  will  stand  .331  of  an 
inch  higher  than  the  other;  and  tills  will  give  a  velocity 
equal  to  79.2  feet  per  minute.  If  the  height  be  five  feet, 
the  difference  of  temperature  remaining  as  before,  the  velocity 
will  be  only  55.2  feet  per  minute;  but  if  the  difference  of 
temperature,  in  this  last  example,  had  been  double  the 
amount  stated; — that  is,  had  the  difference  of  temperature 


148  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

been  16°,  and  the  vertical  height  of  the  pipe  five  feet, — 
then  the  velocity  of  motion  would  have  been  79.2  feet  per 
minute,  the  same  as  in  the  first  example,  where  the  vertical 
height  was  ten  feet,  and  the  difference  of  temperature  8°." 

But,  in  all  these  calculations,  a  considerable  deduction 
must  be  made  for  the  effects  of  friction.  In  the  centre  of 
the  ascending  pipe,  the  heated  particles  meet  with  the 
smallest  amount  of  obstruction,  and  there  the  motion  is 
quickest;  but  at  and  near  the  circumference  of  the  pipe,  the 
retarding  effects  of  friction  are  most  apparant.  In  the 
descending  pipe  the  friction  is  less,  for  tke  water  descends 
more  as  a  whole,  and  is,  moreover,  assisted  by  the  gravity 
of  the  mass.  In  an  apparatus  where  the  length  of  pipe  is 
not  great,  where  the  pipes  are  of  large  diameter,  and  the 
bends  and  angles  few,  a  large  deduction  from  the  theoretical 
amount  must  still  be  made,  to  represent,  with  anything  like 
accuracy,  the  true  velocity;  and  Mr.  Hood  states,  that  in 
more  complex  apparatus,  the  velocity  of  circulation  is  so 
much  reduced  by  friction,  that  it  will  sometimes  require 
from  50  to  90  per  cent.,  and  upwards,  to  be  deducted  from 
the  calculated  velocity,  in  order  to  obtain  the  true  rate  of 
circulation. 

The  amount  of  friction  not  only  varies  according  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  apparatus,  but  also  according  to  the 
size  of  the  pipes.  It  is  much  greater  in  small  pipes  than  in 
large  one,  on  account  of  the  relatively  larger  amount  of 
surface  in  the  former;  besides  this,  small  pipes  cool  quicker 
than  large  ones,  and  this  increases  the  velocity  of  the  circu- 
lation, and  with  it,  the  friction  is  also  increased.  When  the 
velocity  with  which  the  water  flows,  is  the  same  in  pipes  of 
different  sizes,  the  I'elative  amount  of  friction  is  as  follows: — ■ 

Diameter  of  the  pipes,  J  inch,       1  in.      2  in.      3  in.      4  in. 
The  amount  of  friction,  8  4,  3,  1.3,        1. 

So  that,  if  the  friction  in  a  pipe  of  4  inches  diameter  be 
represented  by  1,  the  friction  of  a  pipe  2  inches  in  diameter 
is  twice  as  much,  and  a  1-inch  pipe  four  times  as  much.    By 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  149 

increasing  the  velocity,  the  friction  increases  nearly  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity;  but  as  the  water  in  a  hot-water  appa- 
ratus circulates  with  various  degrees  of  speed  in  its  different 
parts,  it  is  not  easy  to  calculate  the  amount  of  friction  from 
this  cause. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  when  all  the  deductions  are 
made,  the  circulation  of  the  water  is  produced  by  a  very 
feeble  power,  so  that,  as  may  be  supposed,  a  very  slight 
cause  is  .sufficient  to  neutralize  it.  '  Mr.  Hood  has  known  so 
trifling  a  circumstance  as  a  thin  shaving  accidentally  getting 
into  a  pipe,  effectually  to  prevent  the  circulation  in  an 
apparatus  otherwise  perfect  in  all  its  parts. 

But  the  great  point  to  be  attended  to,  is  so  to  dispose 
the  pipes,  that  the  water,  in  its  descent,  may  not  be 
obstructed  by  differences  of  level,  or  angles  in  the  pipes,  where 
air  may  accumulate;  for  this,  by  dividing  the  steam,  effectu- 
ally prevents  the  circulation. 

"With  respect  to  the  accumulation  of  air  in  the  pipes,  every 
part  of  the  apparatus,  where  an  alteration  of  level  occcurs, 
must  be  furnished  with  a  vent  for  the  air. 

When  it  is  required  to  heat  a  number  of  separate  stories 
by  the  same  boiler,  one  of  two  methods  may  be  adopted. 
The  vertical  pipe  from  the  boiler  may  be  carried  up  to  the 
highest  story,  and  the  return-pipe  meander  through  each 
story,  until  it  finally  terminates  in  the  boiler.  But  it  is 
obvious,  that  in  such  case,  the  top  story  will  get  the  larger 
share  of  the  heat,  and  the  lower  stories  will  be  gradually 
less  heated,  on  account  of  the  cooling  of  the  water  in  its 
passage  to  the  boiler.  The  second  method  is  to  supply  each 
story  with  a  separate  range  of  pipes  branching  out  from  the 
main  pipe,  and  returning  either  together,  or  separately,  into 
the  boiler.  The  application  of  this  principle,  however, 
recpiires  caution,  for  if  the  branch  pipes  are  simply  inserted 
into  the  side  of  a  vertical  ascending  pipe,  the  hot  current 
may  pass  by  instead  of  flowing  into  them. 

In  some  arrangements,  the  hot  ascending  current  of  the 


150  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

vertical  main  is  made  to  discharge  into  an  open  cistern  at  the 
top,  and  from  the  bottom  of  this  cistern  the  various  flow- 
pipes  are  made  to  branch  off.  By  this  means,  the  expense 
of  cocks  or  valves  is  avoided ;  for  by  driving  a  wooden  plug 
into  one  or  more  of  the  pipes  which  open  into  the  cistern, 
the  circulation  will  be  stopped  until  the  apparatus  is  heated; 
but,  in  that  case,  water  will  flow  back  through  the  return- 
pipe.  This,  however,  may  be  prevented,  by  bending  a  lower 
portion  of  the  return-pipe  into  the  form  of  an  inverted 
siphon.  This  will  not  prevent  the  circulation,  when  the 
flow-pipe  is  open;  but  if  that  be  closed  by  a  plug  in  the  cis- 
tern, the  hot  water  will  not  return  back  through  the 
lower  pipe.  Any  sediment  that  may  accumulate  in  the 
siphon  may  be  removed,  from  time  to  time,  by  taking  off 
the  cap  at  the  lower  part  of  the  bend. 

In  such  an  arrangement,  the  vertical  main  pipe  need  not 
be  of  larger  diameter  than  the  branches,  unless  these  extend 
to  a  very  considerable  distance,  and  then  the  diameter  of  the 
main  pipe  may  be  somewhat  enlarged.  It  is  not,  however, 
desirable  to  increase  the  diameter  of  the  main,  because  it  is1 
an  object  to  economize  the  heat  in  this  pipe,  and  there  are 
circumstances  in  which  a  small  main  loses  less  heat  than  a 
large  one.  If  one  main  pipe,  eight  inches  in  diameter,  supply 
four  branches  in  a  given  time,  it  is  evident,  that  by  reducing 
the  main  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  the  water  must  travel 
four  times  faster  through  the  smaller  pipe  to  perform  the 
same  amount  of  work;  and,  under  such  circumstances,  the 
water  will  lose  only  half  as  much  heat  in  passing  through 
the  small  main  as  it  would  do  in  ascending  the  larger  one, 
for  the  loss  of  heat  sustained  by  the  water  is  directly  as  the 
time  and  the  surface  conjointly. 

Hence,  in  warming  by  the  same  boiler  two  rooms  separa- 
ed  from  each  other  by  a  considerable  distance,  the  pipe  con- 
necting the  two  rooms  may  be  of  smaller  diameter  than  the 
pipes  used  for  diffusing  the  heat.  A  pipe  of  one  inch  diame- 
ter may  be  used  to  connect  pipes  four  inches  in  diameter 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  151 

Tlie  great  specific  heat  of  water,  whereby  it  is  enabled  to 
retain  its  heat  for  a  very  long  time,  has  been  already  shown 
to  be  a  great  advantage  of  this  method  of  warming  build- 
ings. The  rate  at  which  this  apparatus  cools,  depends 
chiefly  on  the  quantity  cf  water  contained  in  it  with  respect 
to  the  amount  of  surface  exposed,  and  the  excess  of  tempe- 
rature of  the  apparatus  above  that  of  the  surrounding  air; 
but  for  temperatures  below  the  boiling-point,  this  last  cir- 
cumstance need  only  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the 
velocity  with  which  this  apparatus  cools.  Now,  the  variation 
in  the  rate  of  cooling  for  bodies  of  all  shapes,  is  inversely  as 
the  mass  divided  by  the  superficies. '  In  cylindrical  pipes, 
the  inverse  number  of  the  mass  divided  by  the  superficies  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  inverse  cf  the  diameters;  so  that,  sup- 
posing the  temperature  to  be  the  same  in  all, 

In  pipes  of 1      2    3        4  inches  diameter. 

The  ratio  of  cooling  will  be    -    -    -     4      2    1.3      1  " 

That  is,  a  pipe  of  one  inch  in  diameter  will  cool  four  times 
as  quickly  as  a  pipe  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  so  on. 
These  ratios  multiplied  by  the  excess  of  heat  in  the  pipes 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air,  will  give  the  relative  rates 
of  cooling  for  different  temperatures  below  212°;  but  if  the 
temperatures  be  the  same  in  all,  the  simple  ratios  given  above 
will  show  their  relative  rate  of  cooling  without  multiplying 
by  the  temperatures. 

These  calculations  supply  practical  rules  for  estimating 
the  size  of  the  pipes  under  different  circumstances.  If  the 
heat  be  required  to  be  kept  up  long  after  the  fire  is  extin- 
guished, large  pipes  should  be  used;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 
heat  is  not  wanted  after  the  fire  is  put  out,  then  small  ones 
will  answer  the  purpose.  Pipes  of  larger  diameter  than  four 
inches  should  never  be  used,  because  they  require  a  very  long 
time  in  being  heated  to  the  proper  temperature.  Pipes  of 
four  inches  in  diameter  are  well  adapted  for  hot-houses, 
green-houses,  and  conservatories.      Pipes  of  two  or  three- 


152  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

inches  may  be  used  for  warming  churches,  factories,  and 
dwelling-houses;  such  pipes  retain  their  heat  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time,  and  they  can  be  more  quickly  and  more 
intensely  heated  than  larger  pipes,  so  that,  on  this  account, 
a  smaller  quantity  will  often  suffice. 

With  respect  to  the  quautity  of  pipe  required  for  warm- 
ing a  building  of  ascertained  size,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind  the  rate  at  which  a  given  quantity  of  hot  water,  in  an 
iron  pipe  will  impart  its  heat  to  the  surrounding  air.  Now, 
it  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Hood,  that  the  water  contained 
in  an  iron  pipe  four  inches  in  diameter  internally,  and  four 
and  a  half  inches  externally,  loses  .851  of  a  degree  of  heat 
per  minute,  when  the  excess  of  its  temperature  is  125°' 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air;  and  as  one  cubic  foot 
of  water,  in  losing  1°  degree  of  its  heat,  will  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  2,990  cubic  feet  of  air  the  like  extent  of  1°,  so 
one  foot  length  of  four-inch  pipe  will  heat  222  cubic  feet  of 
air  1°  per  minute,  when  the  difference  between  the  temper- 
ature of  the  pipe  and  the  air  is  125°. 

We  must  now  take  into  account  the  loss  of  heat  per 
minute,  arising  from  the  cooling  power  of  glass,  ventilation, 
radiation,  cracks  in  doors  and  windows,  and  other  causes. 
An  allowance  of  from  three  and  a  half  to  five  cubic  feet  of 
air  ought  to  be  made  per  minute  for  each  person  in  the 
room;  so  that,  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  this  quantity 
will  have  to  be  discharged,  and  an  equal  supply  of  air 
brought  in  to  be  warmed. 

One  square  foot  of  glass  will  cool  1.219  cubic  feet  of  air 
as  many  degrees  per  minute  as  the  internal  temperature  of 
the  room  exceeds  the  temperature  of  the  external  air.  If 
the  difference  betwen  them  be  30°,  the  1.279  cubic  feet  of 
air  will  be  cooled  30°  by  each  square  foot  of  glass;  that  is, 
as  much  heat  as  is  equal  to  this  will  be  given  off  by  each 
square  foot  of  glass. 

From  these  and  other  calculations,  for  which  we  must 
refer  to  Mr.  Hood's  able  work,  the  following  corollary  h 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  153 

drawn:  "  The  quantity  of  air  to  be  warmed  per  minute  in 
habitable  rooms  and  public  buildings,  must  be  three  and  a 
half  cubic  feet  for  each  person  the  room  contains,  and  one 
and  a  quarter  cubic  feet  for  each  square  foot  of  glass.  For 
conservatories,  forcing-houses,  and  other  buildings  of 
description,  the  quantity  of  air  to  be  wanned  per  minute 
must  be  one  and  a  quarter  cubic  feet  for  each  square  foot 
of  glass  which  the  building  contains.  When  the  quantity 
of  air  required  to  be  heated  has  been  thus  ascertained,  the 
length  of  pipe  which  will  be  necessary  to  heat  the  building, 
may  be  fouud  by  the  following  rule:  multiply  125  (the 
excess  of  temperature  of  the  pipe  above  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding airj  by  the  difference  between  the  temperature  at 
which  the  room  is  purposed  to  be  kept  when  at  its 
maximum,  and  the  temperature  of  the  external  air;  and 
divide  this  product  by  the  difference  between  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  pipes  and  the  proposed  temperature  of  the  room; 
then,  the  quotient  thus  obtained,  when  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  to  be  warmed  per  minute,  and 
this  product  divided  by  222  (the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
air  raised  1°  per  minute  by  one  foot  of  4-inch  pipe)  will  give 
the  number  of  feet  in  length  of  pipe  four  inches  diameter, 
which  will  produce  the  desired  effect.'' 

When  3-inch  pipes  are  used,  the  quantity  of  pipe 
required  to  produce  the  same  effect  will,  of  course,  be 
different.  To  obtain  it,  the  number  of  feet  of  4-inch 
pipe  obtained  by  the  above  rule  must  be  multiplied  by  1.33 
If  2-inch  pipe  be  used,  the  quantity  of  4-inch  pipe  must  be 
mult i pled  by  two. 

If  we  wish  to  determine  the  quantity  of  pipe  required  to 

maintain  a  constant  temperature  of  75°  in  a  hot-house,  we 

must  suppose  the  external  air  occasionally  to  fall  as  low  as 

10°,  and  calculate  from  this  temperature.     The  amount  of 

heat  to  be  supplied  by  the  pipes  is  obviously  that  which  is 

expended  by  the  glass,  the  cooling  power  of  which  is  exactly 

proportioned  to  the  difference  between  the  internal  and  the 

T 


154  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

external  temperature,  the  actual  cubical  contents  of  the 
house  making  no  difference  in  the  result.  If  such  a  house 
have  S00  square  feet  of  glass,  it  can  easily  be  calculated 
from  the  preceding  data,  that  this  quantity  will  cool  down 
1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  from  75°  to  10°,  which 
will  require  292  feet  of  4-inch  pipe.  If  the  maximum  tem- 
perature of  the  pipe  be  200°,  and  the  water  be  40°  before 
lighting  the  fire,  the  maximum  temperature  will  be  attained 
in  about  four  hours  and  a  half ;  with  3-inch  pipe  in  about 
three  hours  and  a  quarter;  and  with  2-inch  pipe  in  about 
two  hours  and  a  quarter — depending,  however,  upon  the 
structure  of  the  furnace,  and  the  quantity  of  coal  consumed. 
If  the  external  temperature  be  higher  than  10°,  the  effect 
will  be  produced  in  a  proportionally  short  time. 

In  churches  and  large  public  rooms,  with  an  average 
number  of  doors  and  windows,  and  moderate  ventilation,  a 
more  simple  rule  will  apply  for  ascertaining  the  quantity  of 
pipe  required.  Where  a  number  of  persons  are  assembled, 
a  large  amount  of  heat  is  generated  by  respiration,  so  that 
a  very  moderate  artificial  temperature  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  sensation  of  cold.  In  such  a  case,  the  air  does  not 
require  to  be  heated  above  55°  or  58°,  and  the  rule  is  to 
take  the  cubical  measurement  of  the  space  to  be  heated,  and 
dividing  this  by  200,  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  feet 
of  4-inch  pipe  required. 

The  efficiency  of  any  form  of  hot-water  apparatus  will,  of 
course,  greatly  depend  on  the  boiler,  which  ought  to  be  so 
constructed  as  to  expose  the  largest  amount  of  surface  to 
the  fire  in  the  smallest  space ;  to  absorb  the  heat  from  the 
fuel,  so  that  as  little  as  possible  may  escape  up  the  chimney; 
to  allow  free  circulation  of  the  water  throughout  its  entire 
extent,  and  not  be  liable  to  get  out  of  order  by  constant 
use.  A  variety  of  boilers  are  figured  in  Mr.  Hood's  work, 
and  their  respective  merits  considered  on  scientific  grounds. 
,  One  of  these  boilers  is  thus  described  :  It  is  of  cast-iron,  and 
the  part  exposed  to  the  fire  is  covered  with  a  series  of  ribs 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  155 

two  inches  deep,  and  about  one-fourth  or  three-eighths  of  a 
inch  thick,  radiating  from  the  crown  of  the  arch  at  an  aver 
age  distance  of  two  inches  from  each  other.     These  r 
greatly  increase  the   surface  exposed  to   the  fire,  exactly 
where  the  effect  is  greatest;  for  being  immediately  over  the 
burning  fuel,  it  receives  the  whole  of  the  heat  radiated  by 
the  fire.     The  form  of  this  boiler  being  hemispherical,  will 
also  expose  the  largest  amount  of  surface  within  a  given 
area.     The  boiler   being  of  wrought-iron,  and,  therefore, 
thinner  than  cast-iron,  absorbs  the  greatest  amount  of  heat 
from  the  fuel. 

With  respect  to  the  size  of  the  boiler,  it  has  been  shown 
by  experiment  that  four  square  feet  of  surface  in  an  iron 
boiler  will  evaporate  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour  when 
exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  a  tolerably  strong  fire.  The 
same  extent  of  heating  surface  which  will  evaporate  one 
cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour  from  the  temperature  of  52c, 
will  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  requisite  amount  of  heat  to 
232  feet  of  4-inch  pipe,  the  temperature  of  which  is  required 
to  be  kept  14  0°  above  the  surrounding  air;  or  one  square 
foot  of  boiler  surface  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire, 
or  three  squ?,re  feet  of  flue  surface,  will  supply  the  necessary 
neat  to  abr.nt  58  superficial  feet  of  pipe;  or,  in  round  num- 
bers, one  f  wt  of  boiler  to  50  feet  of  pipe.  But  as  this  is  the 
maximum  effect,  a  somewhat  larger  allowance  ought  in 
general  to  be  made.  If  the  difference  of  temperature  be 
120°  instead  of  140°,  the  same  surface  of  boiler  will  supply 
the  requisite  amount  of  heat  to  one-sixth  more  pipe,  and  if 
the  difference  be  only  100°,  the  same  boiler  will  supply 
above  one-third  more  pipe  than  the  quantity  stated. 

With  respect  to  the  furnace,  the  rate  of  combustion  of 
the  fuel  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  size  of  the  furnace-bars, 
provided  the  furnace  door  be  double  and  fit  tightly.  The 
ash-pit  should  also  be  provided  with  a  door  to  exclude  the 
excess  of  air  when  the  fire  is  required  to  burn  slowly.  A 
dumb-plate  should  also  be  provided,  to  cause  the  combustion 


156  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

to  be  most  active  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  furnace,  instead 
of  directly  under  the  boiler.  The  fuel  will  thus  be  gradually- 
coked,  the  smoke  consumed,  and  the  fuel  economized. 

In  an  apparatus,  containing-  600  feet  of  4-inch-pipe,  the 
area  of  the  furnace-bars  should  be  300  square  inches,  so  that 
14  inches  in  width  and  22  inches  in  length  will  give  the 
amount  of  surface  required.  To  obtain  the  greatest  heat 
in  the  shortest  time,  the  area  of  the  bars  should  be  proportion 
ally  increased,  so  that  a  larger  fire  may  be  obtained.  The  fire 
ought  at  all  times  to  be  kept  thin  and  bright,  and  to  obtain 
a  good  effect  from  the  fuel,  one  pound  weight  of  coal  ought 
to  raise  39  lbs.  of  water  from  32°  to  112°. 

The  best  kind  of  pipes  for  hot  water  apparatus  are  those 
with  socket-joints  ;  flange-joints  having  long  been  out  of 
use  for  this  purpose.  Where  the  socket-joints  are  well 
made,  there  is  no  fear  of  leakage,  for  the  pipes  themselves 
will  yield  before  the  joints  will  give  way,  or  before  the  fau- 
cet end  of  one  pipe  can  be  drawn  out  of  the  socket  of  the 
other.  The  joints  must  be  well  caulked  with  spun-yarn,  and 
filled  up  with  iron  cement,  or  with  a  cement  made  of  quick- 
lime and  linseed  oil. 

Soft  or  rainwater  ought  always  to  be  used  in  the  hot- 
water  apparatus,  because,  if  hard  water  be  used,  its  salts 
will  form  a  sediment  or  crust  in  the  boiler,  and  interfere 
with  its  action.  But  as  there  is  very  little  evaporation  from 
this  kind  of  apparatus,  the  boiler  will  not  require  cleaning 
out  for  years,  if  a  moderate  degree  of  attention  be  bestowed 
on  the  water  employed. 

When  the  apparatus  is  not  in  use,  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  water  from  freezing  in  the  pipes,  or  the  sudden 
expansive  force  of  the  water  in  freezing  may  crack  them. 
If  the  apparatus  is  not  likely  to  be  used  for  some  time 
during  winter,  it  is  better  to  empty  the  pipes  than  incur  the 
risk  of  freezing.  It  has  been  proposed  to  fill  the  pipes  with 
oil  instead  of  water,  and  as  the  boiling  point  of  oil  is  nearly 
three  times  higher  than  that  of  water,  it  was  thought  that 


THE   AMERICAN'    COTTAGE   BUILDER.  157 

a  temperature  of  400°  might  be  safely  given  to  the  pipes. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  the  oil  at  high  temperatures 
became  thick  and  viscid,  and  at  length  changed  into  a  gel- 
atinous mass,  completely  stopping  all  circulation  in  the 
pipes. 

In  the  forms  of  apparatus  to  which  the  preceding  de- 
tails refer,  the  temperature  of  the  water  never  rises  to  the 
ordinary  boiling  point  (212°;)  but  we  have  now  to  notice 
a  method,  in  which  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  often 
beyond  300°;  this  is  the  high-pressure  method  contrived 
by  Mr.  Perkins.  In  its  simplest  form,  the  apparatus  con- 
sists of  a  continuous  or  endless-pipe,  closed  in  all  parts,  and 
filled  with  water.  There  is  no  boiler  to  this  apparatus,  its 
place  being  supplied  by  coiling  up  a  portion  of  the  pipe 
(generally  one-sixth  of  the  whole  length)  and  arranging  this 
in  the  furnace  The  remaining  five-sixths  of  the  pipe  are 
heated  by  the  circulation  of  the  hot  water,  which  flows  from 
the  top  of  the  coil,  and  cooling  in  its  progress  through  the 
building,  returns  to  the  bottom  of  the  coil  to  be  re-heated. 
The  diameter  of  the  pipe  is  one  inch  externally,  and  half  an 
inch  internally,  and  is  formed  of  wrought-iron.  The  coil  in 
the  furnace  being  entirely  surrounded  by  the  lire,  the  water 
is  quickly  heated,  and  becoming  also  filled  with  innumerable 
bubbles  of  steam,  these  impart  a  great  specific  levity  to  the 
ascending  current.  At  the  upper  part  of  the  pipe,  the 
steam  bubbles  condense  into  water,  and  uniting  with  the 
column  in  the  return-pipe,  which  is  comparatively  cool,  the 
descent  is  rapid  in  proportion  to  the  expansion  of  the  water 
iu  the  ascending  column;  or,  in  other  words,  according  to 
the  relative  specific  gravities  of  the  two  columns  of  water. 

As  the  expansive  force  of  water  is  almost  irresistible,  in 
consecpience  of  its  extremely  limited  elasticity,  it  is  neces- 
sary", in  the  high-pressure  apparatus,  to  make  some  provision 
for  the  expansion  of  the  water  when  heated.  The  necessity 
for  this  will  appear  from  the  fact,  that  water  healed  from 
39.45°    (the   point   of    greatest   condensation)    to    212 J, 


158  THE    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

expands  about  ^  part  of  its  bulk;  and  the  force  exerted 
on  the  pipes  by  this  expansion,  would  be  equal  to  14,1211bs. 
on  the  square  inch.  The  method  adopted,  is  to  connect  a 
large  pipe,  called  tne  expansion-pipe,  2|  inches  diameter, 
with  some  part  of  the  apparatus,  either  horizontally  or 
vertically.  It  should  be  placed  at  the  highest  point  of  the 
apparatus,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  expansion-pipe  is 
inserted  the  filling-pipe  through  which  the  apparatus  is  filled. 
While  the  apparatus  is  being  filled  with  water,  the  expan- 
sion-tube is  left  open  at  the  top;  water  is  then  poured  in 
through  the  filling  tube,  and  as  it  rises  in  the  pipes,  drives 
out  the  air  before  it.  When  the  pipes  are  full,  the  filling- 
pipe  and  the  expansion-tube  are  carefully  closed  with  screw- 
plugs.  It  is  important  to  expel  all  the  air  from  the  pipes, 
and  this  is  done,  in  the  first  instance,  by  pumping  the  water 
repeatedly  through  them.  The  expansion-pipe  is,  of  course 
left  empty,  as  its  use  is  to  allow  the  water  in  the  spies  to 
expand  on  being  heated,  and  thus  prevent  the  danger  of 
bursting.  From  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  expansion  spacs  is 
generally  allowed  in  practice. 

The  furnace  is  generally  so  arranged  in  the  building 
required  to  be  heated,  as  to  allow  the  tube  proceeding  from 
the  top  of  the  coil  to  be  carried  straight  up  at  once  to  the 
highest  level  at  which  the  water  has  to  circulate ;  here  the 
expansion-tube  is  situated,  and  from  this  point,  two  or  more 
descending  columns  can  be  formed,  which,  after  circulating 
through  different  and  distant  parts  of  the  building,  unite  at 
length  in  one  pipe,  just  before  entering  the  bottom  of  the 
coil  in  the  furnace. 

The  heat  is  communicated  to  the  air  of  the  rooms  from 
the  external  surface  of  the  pipes,  which  are  coiled  up  and 
placed  within  pedestals,  ranged  about  the  room  with  open 
trellis-work  in  front,  or  they  may  be  sunk  in  stone  floors, 
placed  behind  skirtings,  or  in  the  fire-places  of  each  floor, 
the  flues  being  stopped,  or  arranged  in  any  other  convenient 
manner. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  159 

la  consequence  of  the  great  internal  pressure  which 
these  tubes  have  to  sustain,  considerable  care  is  required  in 
their  manufacture.  They  are  made  of  the  best  wrought- 
iron,  rolled  into  sheets  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  of 
the  proper  width.  The  edges  are  then  brought  nearly  to- 
gether, the  whole  length  of  the  iron,  which  is  generally  about 
12  feet.  In  this  state  it  is  placed  in  a  furnace,  and  heated 
to  a  welding-heat.  One  end  is  then  grasped  by  an  instru- 
ment firmly  attached  to  an  endless-chain,  revolving  by  steam- 
power,  and  a  man  applies  a  pair  of  circular  nippers,  which, 
when  closed,  press  the  tube  into  the  required  size,  and  which 
he  holds  firmly  while  the  tube  is  drawn  through  them  by  the 
engine.  The  edges  are  thus  brought  into  perfect  contact,  and 
are  so  completely  welded  after  passing  two  or  three  times 
through  the  nippers,  that  a  conical  piece  of  iron  driven  into 
the  end  of  the  tube  will  not  open  it  at  the  joint  sooner  than 
at  any  other  part. 

When  the  tubes  are  screwed  together  at  each  end,  they 
are  proved  by  hydrostatic  pressure,  with  a  force  equal  to 
3,0001bs.  on  the  square  inch  of  internal  surface. 

When  the  tubes  are  properly  arranged  and  fixed  in  the 
building,  the  whole  apparatus  is  filled  with  water  by  a  force- 
pump,  and  subjected  to  considerable  pressure,  before  lighting 
the  fire.  In  this  way,  faulty  pipes  or  leaky  joints  are 
detected. 

The  tubes  are  joined  by  placing  the  ends  within  a  socket, 
forming  a  right  and  left-hand  screw,  the  edge  of  one  tube 
having  been  flattened,  and  the  other  sharpened:  they  are  then 
screwed  so  tightly  together,  that  the  sharpened  edge  of  one 
pipe  is  indented  in  the  flattened  surface  of  the  other. 
Another  method  of  connecting  the  pipes  is  by  a  cone-joint. 
A  double  cone  of  iron  is  inserted  into  the  ends  of  the  pipes 
to  be  joined,  and  is  made  tight  by  two  screw-bolts.  This 
joint  is  quickly  made,  and  is  very  strong. 

The  furnace  varies  in  form  and  dimensions  according  to 
circumstances. 


160  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

In  the  apparatus  erected  at  the  British  Museum  for 
warming  the  print-room  and  the  bird-room,  the  furnace  is 
in  a  vault  in  the  basement  story,  and  the  pipes,  entering  a 
flue,  are  carried  up  about  forty  feet  to  two  pedestals,  one  in 
each  room;  one  containing  360  feet  of  pipe,  and  the  other 
400  feet.  About  140  feet  of  pipe  are  employed  in  the  flow 
and  return-pipes  in  the  flue,  and  150  feet  are  coiled  up  iD 
the  furnace.  In  this  way,  1,050  feet  of  pipe  are  employed 
The  apparatus  is  very  powerful,  and  supplies  the  requisite 
amount  of  heat.  The  print-room  is  about  40  feet  long  by 
30  feet  wide,  and  the  ceiling  contains  large  sky-lights.  The 
temperature  of  65°  can  easily  be  maintained  in  this  room 
during  winter.  The  fire  is  lighted  at  6,  a.  si.,  and  is  allowed 
to  burn  briskly  till  sufficient  heat  is  produced  in  the  rooms, 
when  the  damper  in  the  flue  in  partially  closed.  A  slow 
fire  is  thus  maintained:  at  11  a.  m.,  a  fresh  supply  of  fuel  is 
added,  and  this  supports  the  fire  till  4,  p.  m.,  when  all  the 
fires  at  the  Museum  are  extinguished.  The  above  details  will 
suffice  to  show  the  nature  and  application  of  this  apparatus. 

The  cabins  of  the  ferry-boats  on  the  Fulton  Ferry,  New 
York,  and  boats  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  are  warmed 
by  water-pipes.  These  pipes  run  under  the  seats,  on  each 
side  of  the  cabin.  The  advantages  which  this  method  of 
heating  possesses  will  be  apparent  when  it  is  stated  that  hot 
water  and  iron  pipes  are  better  conductors  of  heat  than  the 
air  itself.  Heat  can  be  carried  by  pipes  from  one  part  of  a 
room  to  the  other,  easier  through  the  pipes  than  without 
them — the  temperature  of  the  room  is  more  uniform. 

We  fully  agree  with  Mr.  Richardson,  that  in  any  build- 
ing where  this  apparatus  is  intended  to  be  erected,  it  ought 
not  to  be  introduced  as  an  after-thought.  "  It  should  be 
remembered,  that  as  its  complete  success  and  its  economical 
character,  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  due  considera- 
tion of  its  benefits  being  given  at  the  commencement  of  a 
building,  so  it  ought,  in  future,  to  engage  the  primary  con- 
sideration of  the  architect  and  builder  " 


THE    AMERICAN*    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  161 

It  is,  however,  of  great  important  sertain  whel 

tiiis  apparatus  is  perfectly  safe,  for  even  ;i  doubt  on 

subject    must  In-   fatal   to  its  general    introduction.     T 
average  temperature  of  the  pipes  is  Btated  to  be  generally 

about  350°;  bat  a  very  material  difference  in  temperature, 
amounting  sometimes  to  200°  or  300°,  is  said  to  occur  in 
different  parts  of  the  apparatus,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
resistance  which  the  water  meets  with  in  the  numerous  bends 

and  angles  of  this  small  pipe.  The  temperature  of  the  coil 
will,  of  course,  give  the  working  effect  of  the  apparatus,  but 
the  temperature  of  any  part  of  the  pipe  will  furnish  data  for 
estimating  its  saftty;  for  whatever  is  the  temperature,  and, 
consequently,  the  pressure  in  the  coil,  must  be  the  pressure 
on  any  other  part  of  the  apparatus;  for  by  the  law  of  ecmal 
pressures  of  fluids,  an  increased  pressure  at  one  part  will 
generate  an  equally  increased  pressure  at  every  other  part 
of  the  system. 

A  very  elegant  method  of  ascertaining  the  temperature 
of  a  heated  surface  of  iron  or  steel,  consists  in  filing  it 
bright,  and  then  noting  the  color  of  the  thin  film  of  oxide 
which  forms  thereon.*  Mr.  Hood  states,  that  in  some 
apparatus,  if  that  part  of  the  pipe  which  is  immediately 
above  the  furnace  be  filed  bright,  the  iron  will  become  of  a 
straw-color,  showing  a  temperature  of  about  450°.  In 
other  instances,  it  will  become  purple=abont  530°;  and,  in 
some  cases,  of  a  full  blue  color=560°.  Now,  as  there  is 
always  -team  in  some  part  of  the  apparatus,  the  pressure 
can  be  calculated  from  the  temperature,  and  a  temperature 


*  Steel  becomes 

it  very  faint  yellow        -        at 

430 

deg 

.  Fahr 

(i 

pale  straw-color          -        " 

450 

M 

it 

full  yellow            -        -         '• 

470 

II 

ii 

brown         -        -        -        " 

490 

II 

M 

brown,  with  purple  spota   " 

510 

(I 

H 

purple         ..." 

530 

»i 

M 

blue                ..." 

550 

M 

« 

full  blue       -          .         .          •• 

5C0 

ii 

U 

dark-blue,  vergiugon  black  " 

600 

it 

162  THE     J4ERIGAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

of  450°=a  pressure  of  4201bs.  on  the  square  inch;  530°= 
9001bs.;  and  5G0°=l,1501bs.  per  square  inch. 

Although  these  pipes  are  proved,  at  a  pressure  of  nearly 
3,0001bs.  per  square  inch,  and  the  force  required  to  break  a 
wrought-iron  pipe  of  one  inch  external,  and  half  an  inch 
internal  diameter  requires  8,8221bs.  per  square  inch  on  the 
internal  diameter,  yet  these  calculations  are  taken  for  the 
cold  metal.  By  exposing  iron  to  long-continued  heat,  it 
loses  its  fibrous  texture,  and  acquires  a  crystalline  character, 
whereby  its  tenacity  and  cohesive  strength  are  greatly 
weakened. 

In  order  to  make  this  apparatus  safe,  Mr.  Hood  sug- 
gests that,  instead  of  hermetically  sealing  the  expansion- 
pipe,  it  should  be  furnished  with  a  valve,  so  contrived,  as  to 
press  with  a  weight  of  1351bs.  on  the  square  inch.  This 
would  prevent  the  temperature  from  rising  above  350°  in 
any  part :  the  pressure  would  then  be  nine  atmospheres, 
which  is  a  limit  more  than  sufficient  for  any  working  appa- 
ratus where  safety  is  of  importance. 

But,  supposing  the  apparatus  were  to  burst  in  any  part, 
the  effects  would,  by  no  means,  resemble  those  which  ac- 
company the  explosion  of  a  steam-boiler.  One  of  the  pipes 
would,  probably,  crack,  and  the  water,  under  high-pressure, 
escaping  in  a  jet,  a  portion  of  it  would  be  instantly  converted 
into  steam,  while  that  which  remained  as  water  would  sink 
to  212°.  This  would  have  the  effect  of  scalding  water 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  the  high  pressure  steam 
would  not  scald,  because  its  capacity  for  latent  heat  is 
greatly  increased  by  its  rapid  expansion,  on  being  suddenly 
liberated,  so  that  instead  of  imparting  heat,  it  abstracts 
heat  from  surrounding  objects.  The  only  real  danger  that 
would  be  likely  to  ensue,  would  be  from  the  jet  of  hot  water, 
and  this  must,  in  anv  case,  be  of  triflino;  amount. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  163 


VENTILATION. 

As  Nature  is  the  best,  as  well  as  the  earliest,  teacher, 
we  take  our  first  example,  in  the  history  of  ventilation,  from 
the  lower  animals;  and,  we  venture  the  assertion,  that  a 
more  difficult,  or  apparently  more  hopeless  problem,  does 
not  exist  iu  our  rooms  and  crowded  assemblies,  our  mines 
and  ships,  than  in  the  case  about  to  be  proposed. 

Imagine  a  dome-shaped  building,  perfectly  air-tight, 
except  through  a  small  hole  at  the  bottom,  capable  of  con- 
taining thirty  or  forty  thousand  animals,  full  of  life  and 
activity;  every  portion  of  the  enclosed  space  that  can  be 
spared  being  filled  with  curious  machinery ;  the  problem  is, 
how  to  warm  and  ventilate  such  a  space,  so  as  to  maintain 
a  proper  temperature,  and  yet  to  give  to  every  individual 
within  it  a  proper  supply  of  air. 

Now,  this  is  the  condition  of  a  common  bee-hive,  and  we 
may  remark,  that  if,  with  all  our  machines  and  contrivances, 
and  scientific  resources,  the  combined  operation  of  warming 
and  ventilating  a  room  be  difficult,  or  unsatisfactory,  how 
infinitely  more  so  must  be  that  of  a  small  bee-hive,  crowded 
with  bees,  the  greater  part  of  the  interior  filled  up  with 
combs  of  waxen  cells,  and  only  one  small  opening  for  the 
ingress  and  egress  of  the  inhabitants,  or  for  the  escape  of 
foul  air,  and  the  entrance  of  fresh. 

In  a  common  hive,  there  is  absolutely  no  other  door  or 
window,  or  opening,  than  this  small  entrance-hole;  for,  on 
taking  possession  of  a  new  hive,  the  bees  stop  up  all  the 
cracks  and  chinks,  with  a  resinous  substance  named  propolis, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  out  insect  depredators;  and  the 
proprietor,  with  the  same  object,  generally  plasters  the  hive 
to  the  stool,  and,  in  order  to  keep  off  the  rain,  covers  it  with 
a  heavy  straw  cap,  or  turns  a  large  pan  over  it. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that,  because  the  vitality  of 
insects  is  greater  than  that  of  warm-blooded  animals,  beefl 
are  not  affected  by  the  same  agencies  which  affect  us,  fof 


164  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

they  are  so,  and  in  a  similar  manner:  they  fall  down  appa- 
rently dead,  if  confined  in  a  close  vessel;  they  perish  in 
gases  which  destroy  us;  they  perspire  and  faint  with  too 
much  heat ;  and  are  frozen  to  death  by  exposure  to  too  much 
cold. 

Huber  introduced  some  bees  into  the  receiver  of  an  air- 
pump.  They  bore  a  considerable  rarefaction  of  the  air 
without  any  apparent  injury;  on  carrying  it  further,  they 
fell  down  motionless,  but  revived  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In 
another  experiment,  three  glass  vessels,  of  the  capacity  of 
sixteen  fluid  ounces,  were  taken;  250  worker  bees  were 
introduced  into  one,  the  same  number  into  another,  and  150 
males  into  the  third.  The  first  and  the  third  were  shut 
close,  and  the  second  was  partially  closed.  In  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  the  workers  in  the  close  vessel  became  uneasy; 
they  breathed  with  difficulty,  perspired  copiously,  and  licked 
the  moisture  from  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  In  another  quarter 
of  an  hour,  they  fell  down  apparently  dead.  They. revived, 
however,  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  males  were  affected 
more  fatally,  for  none  survived;  but  the  bees  in  the  vessel 
which  admitted  air,  did  not  suffer.  On  examining  the  air 
in  the  two  close  vessels,  the  oxygen  was  found  to  have  dis- 
appeared, and  was  replaced  by  carbonic  acid:  other  bees, 
introduced  into  it,  perished  immediately.  On  adding  a  small 
portion  of  oxygen  gas  to  it,  other  bees  lived  in  it;  but  they 
became  insensible  instantly  on  being  plunged  into  carbonic 
acid,  and  revived  on  exposure  to  the  air:  they  perished  irre- 
coverably in  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  gases.  Similar  experi- 
ments, performed  with  the  eggs,  the  larvae,  and  the  nymphs 
of  bees,  proved  the  conversion  of  oxygen  into  carbonic  acid, 
in  all  three  states.  The  larvae  consumed  more  oxygen  than 
the  eggs,  and  less  than  the  nymphs.  Eggs,  put  into  foul 
air,  lost  their  vitality.  Larvae  resisted  the  pernicious  influ- 
ence of  carbonic  acid  better  than  the  perfect  insect  would 
have  done,  but  the  nymphs  died  almost  instantly  therein. 

These,  and  many  other  analagous  experiments,   prov6 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  1G5 

that  the  respiration  of  bees  has  a  similar  vitiating  effect  upon 
::  confined  atmosphere,  as  the  respiration  of  larger  animals, 
and  that  bees  require  constant  supplies  of  fresh  air,  in  the 
iame  manner  as  other  living  creatures.  They  also  require 
their  dwelling  to  lie  kept  moderately  cool.  When,  from  any 
circumstance,  such  as  exposure  to  the  sun,  overcrowding,  or 
the  excitement  produced  by  fear,  anger,  or  preparation  for 
swarming,  the  temperature  of  the  hive  is  greatly  raised,  the 
bees  evidently  suffer.  They  often  perspire  so  copiously,  as 
to  be  drenched  with  moisture;  and  on  fine  summer  nights 
thousands  of  them  may  be  seen  hanging  out  in  festoons  and 
clusters,  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  crowded  state  of 
the  hive. 

On  inquiring  into  the  method  adopted  by  the  bees  for 
renewing  the  air  of  the  hive,  Huber  was  struck  by  the  con- 
stant appearance  of  a  number  of  the  workers  arranged  on 
each  side  of  the  entrance-hole,  a  little  within  the  hive,  inces- 
santly engaged  in  vibrating  their  wings.  In  order  to  see 
what  effect  a  similar  fanning  would  produce  on  the  air  of  a 
glass  receiver,  containing  a  lighted  taper,  M.  Sexebier 
advised  him  to  construct  a  little  artificial  ventilator,  con- 
sisting of  eighteen  tin  vanes.  This  was  put  into  a  box,  on 
the  top  of  which  was  adapted  a  large  cylindrical  vessel,  of 
the  capacity  of  upwards  of  3,000  cubic  inches.  A  lighted 
iaper,  contained  in  this  vessel,  was  extingished  in  eight  min- 
utes; but,  on  restoring  the  air,  and  setting  the  ventilator  in 
motion,  the  taper  burnt  brilliantly,  and  continued  to  do  so 
as  long  as  the  vanes  were  kept  moving.  On  holding  small 
pieces  of  paper,  suspended  by  threads,  before  the  aperture, 
the  existence  of  two  currents  of  air  became  evident;  there 
was  a  current  of  hot  air  rushing  out,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
a  current,  of' cold  air  passing  in.  On  holding  little  bits  of 
paper  or  cotton  near  the  hole  of  the  hive,  a  similar  effect 
was  produced:  they  were  impelled  towards  the  entrance  by 
the  in-going  current,  and  when  they  encountered  the  out- 
going current  they  were  repelled  with  equal  rapidity. 


166  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.       .   • 

These  two  currents  are  established  in  the  hive,  by  the  fan- 
ning motion  of  the  bees'  wings.     The  worker  bees  perform 
the  office  of  ventilators,  and  the  number,  at  one  time,  varies 
from  eight  or  ten  to  twenty  or  thirty,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  hive,  and  the  heat  of  the  weather.     We  have  fre- 
quently  watched   their   proceedings   with   interest.     They 
station  themselves  in  files,  just  within  the  entrance  of  the 
hive,  with  their  heads  towards  the  entrance,  while  another 
and  a  larger  party  stand  a  considerable  way  within  the  hive, 
with  their  heads  also  towards  the  entrance.     They  plant 
their  feet  as  firmly  as  possible  on  the  floor  of  the  hive, 
stretching   forward   the  first   pair   of  legs,    extending  the 
second  pair  to  the  right  and  left,  while  the  third,  being 
placed  near  together,  are  kept  perpendicular  to  the  abdomen, 
so  as   to   give   that   part   a   considerable   elevation;  then 
uniting  the  two  wings  of  each  side  by  means  of  the  small 
marginal  hooks  with  which  they  are  provided,  so  as  to  make 
them  present  as  large  a  surface  as  possible  to  the  air,  they 
vibrate  them  with  such  rapidity,  that  they  become  almost 
invisible.     The  two  sets  of  ventilators,  standing  with  their 
heads  opposed  to  each  other,  thus  produce  a  complete  cir- 
culation of  the  air  of  the  hive,  and  keep  down  the  tempera- 
ture to  that  point  which  is  fitted  to  the  nature  of  the  animal. 
When  a  higher  temperature  is  required  at  one  particular 
spot,  as,  for  example,  on  the  combs  containing  the  young 
brood,  the  nurse  bees  place  themselves  over  the  cells,  and 
by  increasing  the  rapidity  of  their  respirations,  produce  a 
large  amount  of  animal  heat  just  where  it  is  wanted.     The 
carbonic  acid,  and  other  products  of  respiration,  are  got  rid 
of  by  ventilation. 

The  laborious  task  of  ventilating  the  hive,  is  seldom  or 
neve*  intermitted  in  the  common  form  of  hive,  either  by  day 
or  by  night,  during  summer.  There  are  separate  gangs  of 
ventilators,  each  gang  being  on  duty  for  about  half  an  hour. 
In  winter,  when  the  bees  are  quiet,  and  their  respiration 
only  just  sufficient  to  maintain  vitality,  the  ventilating  pro- 


THE    AMERICAN*    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  161 

cess  is  not  carried  on;  but  by  gently  tapping  on  the  hire, 
its  inmates  wake  up,  increase  the  Dumber  of  their  respira- 
tions, and,  consequently,  the  temperature  of  the  hive,  to 
such  a  degree,  that  the  air  becomes  intolerably  hot  and 
vitiated.  To  remedy  this,  a  number  of  worker  bees  go  to 
the  entrance  of  the  hive,  and  begin  to  ventilate  the  interior 
as  laboriously  as  in  summer,  although  the  open  air  be  too 
cold  for  them  to  venture  out. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  details  given  in  the  introduction  and 
the  conclusion  arrived  at,  that  the  animal  frame  is  a  true 
apparatus  for  combustion,  we  can  understand  how  bees 
regulate  the  temperature  of  their  hive  :  when  greater  heat 
is  wanted,  they  increase  the  rapidity  of  their  respirations,  or 
in  other  words,  they  burn  more  carbon  ;  but  they  get  rid 
of  the  products  of  combustion,  and  also  prevent  the  heat 
from  accumulating,  by  the  process  of  ventilation.  Bees, 
in  general,  maintain  a  temperature  of  10°  or  15°  above 
that  of  the  external  air  ;  but,  at  certain  periods,  this  tem- 
perature is  greatly  increased.  Mr.  Newport  observed,  in 
the  month  of  June,  when  the  atmosphere  was  at  56°  or 
58°,  that  the  temperature  of  the  hive  was  96°  or  98°. 
This  high  temperature  arose  from  the  nurse  bees  incubating 
on  the  combs,  and  voluntarily  increasing  their  heat  by  mean* 
of  increased  respiration.  In  winter,  on  the  contrary,  wheD 
only  just  sufficent  heat  is  required  to  maintain  vitality,  lesa 
carbon  is  burnt,  and  the  temperature  of  the  hive  is  accord- 
ingly low.  In  one  observation  by  Mr.  Newport  at  1.15,  a 
m.,  on  the  2nd  January,  1836,  when  there  was  a  clear, 
intense  frost,  and  the  thermometer  in  the  open  air  stood  a 
little  above  11°,  a  thermometer  permanently  fixed  in  the 
hive,  marked  a  temperature  of  30°,  or  two  degrees  below 
the  freezing-point,  The  bees  were  roused  by  tapping  on  the 
hive,  and  in  the  course  of  sixteen  minutes,  the  thermometer 
rose  to  70°,  or  53°  above  the  temperature  of  the  external 
air.  On  another  occasion,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
hive  had  been  raised  to  about  10°,  the  external  air  being 


168  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

at  40°,  the  bees  soon  cooled  it  down  to  51°  by  their  mode 
of  ventilation,  and  kept  it  at  that  point  as  long  as  the  hive 
continued  to  be  excited. 

By  this  process  of  ventilation,  bees  get  rid  of  noxious 
odors  in  the  hive.  Hucer  found  that,  on  introducing 
into  the  hive  some  penetrating  vapor,  disagreeable  to  the 
bees,  they  always  increased  the  amount  of  ventilation,  until 
they  got  rid  of  *it.  Humble-bees  adopt  the  same  method 
of  dispelling  pernicious  odors  ;  but  it  is  remarkable,  that 
neither  their  males,  nor  those  of  domestic  bees,  seem  capa- 
ble of  using  their  wings  as  ventilators.  "Ventilation  is, 
therefore,"  says  Huber,  "  one  of  the  industrial  operations 
peculiar  to  the  workers.  The  Author  of  Nature,  in  assign- 
ing a  dwelling  to  those  insects  where  the  air  can  hardly 
penetrate,  bestows  the  means  of  averting  the  fatal  effects 
resulting  from  the  vitiation  of  their  atmosphere.  Perhaps  the 
bee  is  the  only  creature  entrusted  with  so  important  a  func- 
tion, and  which  indicates  such  delicacy  in  its  organization." 

The  circumstances  under  which  our  rooms  are  placed, 
are  far  more  favorable  to  ventilation  than  the  bee-hive. 
Whether  the  ventilation  be  left  to  chance,  or  whether  any 
special  apparatus  be  erected  for  the  purpose,  the  foul,  vitiat- 
ed air  must  be  got  rid  of,  and  fresh  air,  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses of  respiration,  admitted  in  sufficient  quantity — that  is, 
at  the  rate  of  about  four  cubic  feet  per  minute,  for  each 
individual  in  the  room.  The  air  must  leave  the  room  at 
certain  openings,  or  be  drawn  out  of  it  thereby  at  this  rate, 
while  a  similar  amount  of  fresh  air  must  enter  to  supply  the 
loss;  or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  the  force  or  impetus  of 
the  incoming  air  ought  slightly  to  compress  the  air  of  the 
room,  and  assist  the  efflux  of  the  vitiated  air,  and  this,  in 
its  turn,  ought  to  be  so  heated,  as  to  have  a  certain  amount 
of  ascentional  force  over  that  of  the  incoming  air.  In  some 
cases,  mechanical  means  are  necessary  to  expel  the  air,  such 
as  fanners,  bellows,  pumps,  &c. ;  but  it  is  generally  more 
convenient,  as  well  as  economical,  to  trust  to  the  natural 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  1G9 

method  of  getting  rid  of  the  vitiated  air,  by  making  cer- 
tain ventilating  tubes  or  openings  at  the  highest  point  of 
the  room  towards  which  the  hot  air  tends  to  flow. 

The  same  cause  which  produces  the  draught  of  common 
chimneys:,  and  of  the  glass  chimneys  of  our  oil  and  gas 
lamps  will,  if  circumstances  be  favorable,  set  in  motion  and 
discharge  the  vitiated  air  of  our  rooms,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  brings  in  the  fresh.  For  example,  the  air  of  a  com- 
mon chimney,  under  the  influence  of  the  Are,  expands 
according  to  a  law  applicable  to  all  gases,  namely,  xir  of 
its  volume  for  each  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  scale  from  32° 
to  212°.  Xow,  if  a  chimney  or  ventilating  flue  were  ten 
feet  high,  and  the  temperature  of  the  column  of  air  within 
it  were  raised  20°  above  the  temperature  of  the  external 
air,  the  expansion  would  be  -ffoths,  or  -aVth  of  its  bulk. 
This  would  so  far  diminish  the  specific  gravity  of  the  heated 
column,  that  it  would  require  10|  feet  thereof  to  balance  a 
column  of  the  external  air  of  10  feet.  It  has  been  already 
stated,  that  the  velocity  of  efflux  is  equal  to  the  velocity  of 
a  heavy  body  falling  through  the  difference  in  height 
between  the  two  columns;  and  in  the  case  before  us,  the 
difference  of  five  inches  is  equal  to  5.H4  feet  per  second, 
or  310  feet  per  minute;  and  this  is  the  velocity  with  which 
a  heated  column  of  air  would  be  forced  through  the  ven- 
tilating tube  or  chimney:  and  supposing  the  dimensions  of 
this  to  be  one  foot  square,  then  310  cubic  feet  of  air  would 
escape  per  minute.  This,  however,  is  the  theoretical  amount, 
which  does  not  take  into  account  the  retarding  effects  of 
friction  arising  from  the  roughness  of  the  tube,  or  any 
angles  or  bends  in  it,  or  the  increased  density  of  the  hot 
air  from  the  presence  of  carbon  from  the  fuel,  in  a  minutely- 
divided  state.  In  practice,  it  is  usual  to  allow  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  for  the  effects  of  friction. 

As  the  velocity  of  a  falling  body,  in  a  second  of  time,  is 
known  to  be  eight  times  the  square  root  of  the  heighth  of 
the  descent,  in  decimals  of  a  foot,  so  the  velocity  of  dis- 

8 


170  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

charge  per  second,  through  vent-tubes  or  chimneys,  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  equal  to  eight  times  the  square  root  of  the 
difference  in  height  of  the  two  columns  of  air,  in  decimals  of 
a  foot.  This  number,  reduced  one-fourth  for  friction,  and 
the  remainder  multiplied  by  60,  will  give  the  true  velocity 
of  efflux  per  minute;  and  the  area  of  the  tube,  in  feet,  or 
decimals  of  a  foot,  multiplied  by  this  last  number,  will  give 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  discharged  per  minute. 

In  estimating  the  total  height  of  a  column  of  heated  air, 
we  must  calculate  the  total  vertical  height  from  the  floor 
of  the  room  to  be  ventilated  to  the  top  of  the  tube,  where 
it  discharges  into  the  open  air.  All  horizontal  bends  and 
angles  may  be  neglected,  for  these  make  no  difference  in  the 
vertical  height,  but  only  increase  the  amount  of  friction, 
and  deprive  the  heated  column  of  a  portion  of  its  ascen- 
tional  force,  by  cooling.  As  the  vertical  height  of  the 
column  gives  the  velocity  of  discharge  in  the  ratio  of  the 
square  root  of  the  height  of  the  column,  it  is  necessary, 
where  several  vent-tubes  be  employed,  that  they  all  be  of 
the  same  vertical  height,  or  the  highest  vent  will  prevent 
the  efficient  action  of  the  lower  ones,  so  that  there  may 
actually  be  a  smaller  discharge  through  two  tubes  than 
through  one  only. 

So,  also,  when  several  openings  are  made  above  the 
level  of  the  floor  of  a  room,  the  highest  may  be  the  only 
one  capable  of  acting  as  an  abduction-tube,  the  other  lower 
openings  often  serving  as  induction-tubes,  discharging  cold 
air  into  the  room  instead  of  taking  it  out;  and,  in  doing  so, 
lower  the  temperature  of  the  hot,  vitiated  air,  and  prevent 
it  from  escaping;  thus  not  only  causing  the  bad  air  to  be 
breathed  over  again,  but  filling  the  room  with  unpleasant 
draughts.  But  if  the  highest  abduction-tube  be  too  small 
to  carry  off  the  requisite  quantity  of  hot  air,  the  tube  next 
below  it  in  elevation  at  any  part  of  the  room  will  act  as  an 
abduction-tube. 

If  the  lower  openings  for  the  admission  of  cool,  fresh  air 


TIIE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDEK.  171 

be  too  small  in  proportion  to  those  for  the  escape  of  the  hot 
air,  a  current  of  cold  air  will  descend  through  one  part  of 
the  hot-air  tube,  and  (lie  hot  air  will  ascend  through  anothei 
part  of  the  same  tube — an  effect  which  we  have  already  seen 
takes  place  in  the  ventilation  of  a  bee-hive.  This  effect  may 
also  be  shown  by  a  very  pleasing  experiment :  Place  a 
lighted  taper  in  a  flat  dish,  and  cover  it  with  a  glass  receiver, 
furnished  with  a  long  glass  chimney  placed  immediately  over 
the  flame.  If  the  bottom  of  the  receiver  does  not  come  into 
very  (dose  contact  with  the  dish,  enough  air  will  enter  to 
support  combustion,  and  the  draught  or  current  of  hot  air 
will  escape  up  the  chimney,  and  the  taper  will  continue  to 
burn  for  any  length  of  time.  If  we  now  shift  the  receiver  a 
little  on  one  side,  so  that  the  flame  may  not  be  immediately 
under  the  chimney,  the  products  of  combustion  will  impinge 
upon  the  glass,  and  cooling  down  and  mingling  with  the  air 
of  the  receiver,  will  contaminate  it  so  much,  that  the  taper 
immediately  begins  to  burn  dimly,  and  will  soon  be  extin- 
guished. On  bringing  the  chimney  over  the  flame,  it  will 
speedily  improve  in  appearance;  the  smoke  and  other  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  will  be  rapidly  discharged,  and  the 
receiver  will  become  bright  and  transparent  as  before. 
But  suppose  we  cut  off  all  communication  with  the 
external  air  from  below  by  pouring  a  little  water  into  the 
dish,  so  as  to  cover  the  mouth  of  the  receiver,  we  shall 
then  have  the  case  of  a  room  which  is  provided  with  a  vent- 
tube  near  the  ceiling,  but  has  no  provision  for  admitting 
fresh  air  from  any  lower  openings;  in  such  case,  the  fresh 
air  will  seek  to  enter  by  the  ventilating  tube.  If  this  be 
large  enough,  the  outgoing  hot  air  and  the  incoming  cool 
air  will  divide  the  tube  into  two  parts.  But  if,  as  in  the 
experiment  before  us,  the  ventilating  tube  or  chimney  bts 
too  narrow,  the  hot  and  cold  currents  will  interfere  with  each 
other;  the  tendency  of  the  hot  air  to  rise  and  of  the  cold 
air  to  descend,  will  prevent  the  escape  of  the  one  and  the 
entrance  of  the  other,  and  the  taper  will  soon  be  extin- 


172  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

guished  for  want  of  fresh  air.  But  if  the  chimney  be 
divided  into  two  portions  by  a  flat  strip  of  tin  plate  passed 
down  it,  and  the  taper  be  lighted  and  placed  in  its  former 
position,  it  will  continue  to  burn  for  any  length  of  time; 
for,  by  this  arrangement,  the  two  currents  of  hot  and  cold 
air  are  prevented  from  interfering  with  each  other;  the  hot 
air  will  pass  up  one  channel  and  escape,  aud  the  cold  air 
will  descend  the  other  channel  to  feed  the  flame.  By  hold- 
ing a  piece  of  smoking  paper  or  the  glowing  wick  of  a  taper 
on  one  side  of  the  chimney,  the  smoke  will  be  drawn  down, 
thereby  indicating  the  descending  current  of  cool  air;  while, 
on  the  other  side,  the  smoke  will  be  driven  up  by  the  as- 
cending current  of  heated  air. 

In  the  same  manner,  these  couuter-curreuts  may  be  fre- 
quently noticed  in  churches  and  other  crowded  places, 
where  due  provision  is  seldom  made  for  the  entrance  of  fresh 
air,  and  the  escape  of  the  foul.  It  is  usual  in  summer  to 
mitigate  the  effects  of  the  hot,  vitiated  atmosphere,  by 
throwing  open  the  windows.  A  portion  of  the  foul  air,  it 
is  true,  escapes  by  these  channels,  but  a  counter-current 
immediately  sets  in  through  each  of  them,  exposing  the 
persons  near  them  to  the  dangerous  effects  of  draught,  and 
also  cooling  the  foul  air  which  is  seeking  to  escape,  and 
sending  it  down  to  be  breathed  over  again. 

;Now,  in  order  that  these  open  windows  or  any  other 
ventilating  openings  be  effective,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
lower  openings  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air  be  as  uumerous, 
or,  at  least,  as  large  as  the  upper  ones,  and  larger,  if 
possible.  By  making  these  lower  openings,  or  induction- 
pipes,  or  doors,  or  valves,  or  any  other  contrivances  both 
numerous  and  capacious,  the  entering  current  is  broken  up 
and  divided,  and  cold  draughts  are  avoided.  This  remark 
is  equally  applicable  to  fresh  air,  which  has  been  previously 
warmed  by  an  artificial  process;  for,  by  admitting  it  into  the 
room  through  numerous  channels,  it  distributes  its  warmth 
more  equally,  and  does  not  rise  to  the  ceiling  too  rapidly. 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  173 

Ventilation  is  more  difficult  in  summer  than  in  winter, 
because,  in  warm  weather  the  difference  between  the  inter- 
nal and  the  external  temperature  is  much  less  than  in  cold 
weather.  In  all  cases  of  spontaneous  ventilation,  it  will 
therefore  be  necessary  in  summer  to  increase  the  number  or 
the  size  of  the  ventilating  tubes.  When  these  tubes  are 
constructed,  their  number  and  size  ought  to  be  adapted  to 
the  full  amount  of  summer  ventilation.  In  winter  some 
of  them  can  be  closed,  and  others,  if  too  large,  ought 
to  admit  of  being  reduced  in  size.  Perforated  zinc  is 
now  getting  into  use  as  a  ventilator.  The  pane  of  glass 
furthest  from  the  fire-place  and  in  the  upper  row  is  taken 
out,  and  its  place  supplied  with  a  sheet  of  zinc,  having  220 
perforations  to  the  square  inch.  Panes  of  perforated  glass 
are  also  abundantly  supplied,  as  well  as  glass  louvres. 

Tredgold  has  given  some  very  sensible  directions  for  the 
ventilation  of  a  church,  which,  of  course,  apply  equally  to 
any  other  public  building,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  pri- 
vate houses.  He  advises,  that  the  spaces  for  the  admission 
of  the  cold  air  be  abundantly  large,  and  divided  as  much 
as  possible  ;  they  should  be  in  or  near  the  floor,  so  that  the 
air  may  not  have  to  descend  upon  any  one  ;  by  making  the 
openings  large,  and  covering  them  on  the  inside  with  rather 
close  wire-work  (sixty -four  apertures  to  the  square  inch) 
most  of  the  current  may  be  prevented  ;  and  it  may  be  still 
further  prevented  by  bringing  tubes  under  the  paving  to 
admit  fresh  air  into  the  central  parts  of  the  church.  Of 
course  these  openings  must  be  provided  with  shutters,  so  as 
to  close  them  when  desirable.  Provision  should  be  made 
for  the  escape  of  the  warm  air  at  different  parts  of  the 
ceiling,  through  air-trunks  furnished  with  registers.  The 
form  of  the  mouth  of  the  vent-tube,  is  a  circular  aperture, 
with  a  balanced  circular  register-plate,  to  close  it.  This 
plate  should  be  larger  than  the  aperture,  in  order  that  the 
air  may  be  drawn  into  a  horizontal  current,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  away  the  portion  of  air  next  the  ceiling.     If  the 


114  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

tube  were  left  without  a  plate,  the  air  immediately  under  it 
would  press  forward  up  the  tube,  and  very  little  of  the 
worst  air  which  collects  at  the  ceiling  would  escape. 

A  flat  or  level  ceiling  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  purposes 
of  ventilation  ;  but  a  still  worse  form  of  ceiling  is  that 
which  is  divided  into  coffers,  for  in  these  the  air  collects, 
gets  cooled,  and  descends.  For  effective  ventilation,  ceilings 
ought  always  to  be  dome-shaped,  coved,  arched,  groined,  or 
of  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  so  as  to  rise  in  the 
centre,  and  at  the  centre  or  most  elevated  point,  the  ventil- 
ating tube  should  be  placed.  When  curved  lines  are  not 
used,  ceilings  of  this  form  ought  always  to  be  adopted; 
they  are  not  much  more  expensive  than  flat  ones;  they  have 
a  better  effect,  and  are  vastly  superior  as  far  as  ventilation 
is  concerned,  supposing  an  opening  be  made  in  the  central 
or  highest  point  for  the  escape  of  the  vitiated  air. 

As  it  is  not  always  possible  to  conduct  the  vent-tube  at 
once  in  a  vertical  line  from  the  highest  point  of  the  ceiling, 
there  is  no  objection  to  giving  it  a  horizontal  direction  for 
eome  distance. 

Where  the  vent-tubes  can  be  carried  up  vertically  from 
the  ceiling  to  the  top  of  the  building,  it  is  always  better  to 
do  so,  because  the  friction  of  the  hot  ascending  current  is 
thereby  diminished.  If  the  vent  be  made  through  the  ceil- 
ing of  a  church  into  the  space  in  the  roof,  and  from  this 
space,  an  air-tube  be  taken  up  within  the  steeple  or  bell- 
turret,  an  effectual  ventilation  may  be  obtained  without 
adding  outlets  to  the  roof.  Where  external  appearance  is 
less  regarded,  a  common  louvre-boarded  top,  for  an  outlet 
from  the  roof,  will  answer  All  side  and  end  windows 
should  be  kept  closed  ;  for  if  the  apertures  at  the  ceiling  be 
of  the  proper  size,  and  due  provision  be  made  for  supplying 
fresh  air,  these  open  windows,  as  already  explained,  will 
diminish,  not  increase  the  amount  of  ventilation.  The 
reason  has  been  already  stated  why  ventilation  is  difficult  to 
maintain  in  warm  weather.    Of  course,  it  becomes  especially 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  115 

so  in  very  calm,  warm  weather.  Mr.  Tredgold  gives  a  case 
of  this  kind  :  Suppose  we  wish  to  provide  ventilation 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  internal  air  from  being  of  a  higher 
temperature  than  5°  above  that  of  the  external  air.  Now, 
if  the  external  air  be  at  10°,  we  shall  not  be  able  to  keep 
the  internal  temperature  dowu  to  75°  with  a  less  escape  of 
air  than  2£  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each  person  ;  because 
each  person  will  heat  at  least  that  quantity  of  air  5°  in  a 
minute,  at  these  tempertures.  When  a  church  contains 
1,000  persons,  and  the  height  from  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the 
tube  is  49  feet,  the  sum  of  the  apertures  that  will  allow 
2,200  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  to  escape,  when  the  excess 
of  temperature  is  5°,  must  be  equal  to  12  square  feet.  If 
the  height  be  only  3G  feet,  the  size  of  the  aperture  must  be 
14  square  feet,  nearly.  When  the  ceiling  is  level,  this  area 
should  be  divided  among  five  or  more  ventilators,  disposed 
in  different  parts  of  the  ceiling  ;  but  in  a  vaulted  or  arched 
roof,  three  are  recommended  to  be  placed  in  the  highest 
part  of  the  ceiling. 

It  is  also  recommended,  that  the  openings  for  admitting 
cold  air  be  about  double  the  area  of  those  at  the  ceiling. 
The  air  should  not  be  taken  from  very  near  the  ground,  nor 
from  a  confined  place.  In  designing  and  constructing  a 
new  building,  flues  might  be  made  for  the  special  purpose 
of  supplying  the  interior  with  fresh  air.  Each  flue  might 
open  in  the  cornice,  pass  down  between  the  piers,  and 
under  the  flooring  of  the  church  or  other  building,  and 
terminate  in  apertures  which  would  be  covered  with  grat- 
ings. By  disposing  some  of  these  flues  on  each  side  of  the 
church,  they  would  act  with  the  wind  in  any  direction. 
These  exterior  openings  should,  however,  be  covered  with  a 
grating,  to  prevent  birds  from  building  in  them,  and  thus 
stopping  them  up. 

In  some  of  the  old  buildings,  which  still  excite  the 
admiration  of  persons  of  cultivated  taste,  by  the  beauty  of 
their  arrangements  and  architectural  details,  we  sometimes 


H6  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 

'  meet  with  special  provision  for  ventilation,  arranged  on  the 
-  truest  principles.  Thus,  in  the  ' '  Hall  of  the  Baths"  in  the 
Alhambra,  at  Granada,  the  roof  is  perforated  with  ventilat- 
ing openings,  and  is  not  only  of  the  best  possible  form  for 
the  purpose  of  ventilation,  but  the  openings  themselves  are 
of  the  best  possible  shape,  being  wider  at  the  lower  extrem- 
ity than  at  the  upper;  and  in  order  that  these  openings  may 
present  the  least  possible  amount  of  friction  to  the  outgoing 
air,  they  are  provided  with  short  tubes  of  baked  earth, 
covered  with  a  green,  vitreous  glazing. 

Such  are  the  methods  by  which  churches  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings  may  be  spontaneously  ventilated.  In  the 
rooms  of  private  houses,  the  ventilation  must  also  be  spon- 
taneous, for  if  the  slightest  trouble  be  entailed  on  the  in- 
mates, even  to  the  opening  of  a  window,  it  will  be  neglected. 
The  means  of  ventilation  must  be  cheap,  easily  procurable, 
always  in  place,  self-acting,  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order, 
requiring  no  adjustment,  no  care  whatever  on  the  part  of 
the  inmates.  It  would  seem  impossible,  at  first  view,  to 
contrive  anything  at  all  likely  to  answer  these  conditions, 
and  yet  the  thing  has  been  done  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
by  that  truly  patriotic  individual,  Dr.  Arnott,  so  well 
known  for  his  water-bed,  his  stove,  and  other  inventions, 
which  he  has  freely  presented  to  the  public,  without  seeking 
or  desiring  any  emolument  to  himself. 

In  the  autumn  of  1849,  when  the  cholera  was  raging  in 
England,  the  Board  of  Health  recommended,  in  one  of 
their  notifications  published  in  the  London  Gazette,  that  in 
every  badly-ventilated  dwelling,  "considerable  and  immedi- 
ate relief  maybe  given  by  a  plan  suggested  by  Dr.  Arnott,  of 
taking  a  brick  out  of  the  wall  near  the  ceiling  of  the  room, 
so  as  to  open  a  direct  communication  between  the  room  and 
the  chimney.  Any  occasional  temporary  inconvenience  of 
down-draught  will  be  more  than  compensated  by  the  bene- 
ficial results  of  this  simple  ventilating  process." 

A  few  days  after  this  authoritative  recommendation  of 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE  BUILDER.  17? 

this  contrivance,  and  in  consequence  of  numerous  applica- 
tions for  further  Information  on  the  subject,  Dr.  Arnott 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  Times  newspaper,  dated  Septem- 
ber 22,  1849.  This  admirable  letter  is  so  interesting  and 
so  pertinent,  that  we  venture  to  transfer  nearly  the  whole 
of  it  to  our  pages  : — 

"  I  assume,"  says  Dr.  Arnott,  "  that  most  of  your  readers 
already  understand,  or  will  now  learn,  that  the  air  which  we 
breathe,  and  which  is  used  to  stuff  air-pillows,  consists  of 
material  elements,  as  much  as  the  water  which  we  drink,  or 
the  food  which  we  eat — indeed,  consists  altogether  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen;  the  first  of  which  forms  also  seven-eights,  by 
weight,  of  the  substance  of  water,  and  the  other  nearly  one- 
fifth,  by  weight,  of  the  substance  of  flesh;  and  that  there  is 
surrounding  our  globe,  to  a  depth  of  about  fifty  miles,  a 
light,  fluid  ocean  of  such  air,  called  the  atmosphere,  into 
which,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  certain  impurities  are 
always  rising-  from  the  functions  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life  and  the  decomposition  of  substances  in  putrefaction, 
combustion,  &c,  just  as  into  the  sea  and  great  rivers  some 
impurities  arc  always  entering  from  the  sewers — all  which 
impurities,  however,  are  quickly  so  diluted  or  dissipated  in 
the  great  masses,  as  to  become  absolutely  imperceptible,  and 
eventually,  by  the  admirable  process  of  nature,  are  decom- 
posed and  changed,  so  that  the  great  oceans  of  air  and 
water  retain  ever  their  state  of  perfection.  1  assume,  fur- 
ther, that  your  readers  know  that  fresh  air  for  breathing  is 
the  most  immediately  urgent  of  the  essentials  to  life,  as 
proved  by  the  instant  death  of  any  one  totally  deprived  of 
it  through  drowning  or  strangulation;  and  by  the  slower 
death  of  men  compelled  to  breathe  over  again  the  same 
small  quantity  of  air,  as  when  lately  seventy-three  passen- 
gers were  suffocated  in  an  Irish  steamboat,  of  which  the 
hold  was  shut  up  for  an  hour,  by  closely-covered  hatches; 
and  by  the  still  slower  death,  accompanied  geuerally  by  some 
induced  form  of  chronic  disease,  of  persons  condemned  to 


178  THE    AMERICAN*    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

breathe  habitually  impure  air,  like  the  dwellers  in  crowded, 
ill-veutilated  rooms,  and  fool  neighborhoods;  and,  lastly,  as 
proved  by  the  fact,  that  pestilence  or  infectious  diseases  are 
engendered  or  propagated  almost  only  where  impurities  in 
the  air  are  known  to  abound,  and  particularly  where  the 
poison  of  the  human  breath  and  other  emanations  from  liv- 
ing bodies  are  allowed  to  mingle  in  considerable  quantity — 
as  instanced  in  the  gaol  and  ship  fevers,  which  so  lately,  as 
in  the  days  of  the  philanthropist  Howard,  carried  off  a 
large  proportion  of  those  who  entered  gaols  and  ships;  and, 
as  instanced  in  that  fearful  disease,  which,  at  the  Black 
Assizes  at  Oxford,  in  July,  1571,  spread  from  the  prisoners 
to  the  Court,  and  within  two  days  had  killed  the  judge,  the 
sheriff,  several  justices  of  the  peace,  most  of  the  jury,  and 
a  great  mass  of  the  audience,  and  which  afterwards  spread 
among  the  people  of  the  town.  This  was  a  fever  which  did 
its  work  as  quickly  as  the  cholera  does  now. 

"  Assuming  that  these  points  are  tolerably  understood,  I 
shall  proceed  to  show,  that  from  faults  in  the  construction 
and  management  of  our  houses,  many  persons  are  uncon- 
sciously doing,  in  regard  to  the  air  they  breathe,  nearly  as 
fishes  would  be  doing  in  regard  to  the  water  they  breathe, 
if,  instead  of  the  pure  element  of  the  vast  rivers  or  bound- 
less sea  streaming  past  them,  they  shut  themselves  up  in 
holes  near  the  shores  filled  with  water  defiled  by  their  own 
bodies,  and  from  other  foul  sources.  And  I  shall  have  to 
show,  that  the  spread  of  cholera  in  this  country  has  been 
much  influenced  by  the  gross  oversights  referred  to. 

"  All  the  valued  reports  and  published  opinions  on  cholera 
go  far  to  prove,  that  in  this  climate,  at  least,  any  foreign 
morbific  agent  or  influence  which  produces  it,  comes  com- 
paratively harmless  to  persons  of  vigorous  health,  and  to 
those  who  are  living  in  favorable  circumstances;  but  that 
if  it  find  persons  with  the  vital  powers  much  depressed  or 
disturbed  from  any  cause,  and  even  for  a  short  time,  as  hap- 
pens from  intemperance,  from  improper  food  or  drink,  from 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  179 

great  fatigue  or  anxiety — but,  above  all,  from  waut  of 
fresh  air,  and,  consequently,  from  breathing  that  which  is 
foul,  it  readily  overcomes  them.  It  would  seem  as  if  the 
peculiar  morbid  agent  could  as  little,  by  itself,  produce  the 
fatal  disease,  as  one  of  the  two  elements  concerned  in 
common  gas  explosion — namely,  the  coal-gas  and  the  atmos 
pheric  air — can  alone  produce  the  explosion.  The  great 
unanimity  among  writers  and  speakers  on  the  subject,  in 
regarding  foul  atmosphere  as  the  chief  vehicle  and  favorer, 
if  not  a  chief  efficient  cause  of  the  pestilence,  is  seen  in  the 
fact  of  how  familiar  to  the  common  ear  have  lately  become 
the  words  and  phrases  '  malaria,  filth,  crowded  dwellings, 
crowded  neighborhoods,  close  rooms,  faulty  sewers,  drains, 
and  cess-pools — or  total  want  of  these — effluvia,  of  grave- 
yards,' &c. ;  all  of  which  are  merely  so  many  names  for  foul 
air,  and  for  sources  from  which  they  arise.  Singularly,  how- 
ever, little  attention  has  yet  been  given,  from  authority,  to 
the  chief  source  of  poisonous  air,  and  to  means  of  ventila- 
tion, by  which  all  kinds  of  foul  air  may  certainly  be  removed. 
"  A  system  of  draining  and  cleansing,  water-supply  and 
flushing,  for  instance,  to  the  obtainment  of  which,  chiefly, 
the  Board  of  Health  has  hitherto  devoted  its  attention, 
can,  however  good,  influence  only  that  quantity  and  kind 
of  aerial  impurity  which  arises  from  retained  solid  or  liquid 
filth  within  or  about  a  house,  but  it  leaves  absolutely  un- 
touched the  other  and  really  more  important  kind,  which, 
in  known  quantity,  is  never  absent  where  men  are  breathing — 
namely,  the  filth  and  poison  of  the  human  breath.  This 
latter  kind  evidently  plays  the  most  important  part  in  all 
cases  of  a  crowd,  and,  therefore,  such  catastrophes  as  that 
of  the  Tooting  School,  with  1,100  children,  of  whom  nearly 
300  were  seized  by  cholera,  of  the  House  of  Refuge  for  the 
Destitute,  and  of  the  two  great  crowded  lunatic  asylums 
here,  where  the  disease  made  similar  havoc, — for  places  so 
public  as  these,  and  visited  daily  by  numerous  strangers, 
could  not  be  allowed  to  remain  visibly  impure  with  solid 


180  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

and  liquid  filth,  like  the  Rookery  of  St.  Giles's,  aad  other 
such  localities.  Now,  good  ventilation,  which,  although 
few  persons  comparatively  are  as  yet  aware  of  the  fact,  is 
easily  to  be  had,  not  only  entirely  dissipates  and  renders 
inert  the  breath-poison  of  inmates,  however  numerous,  and 
even  of  fever  patients  ;  but  in  doing  this,  it  necessarily  at 
the  same  time  carries  away  at  once  all  the  first-named  kinds 
of  poison,  arising  from  bad  drains,  or  want  of  drains,  and 
thus  acts  as  a  most  important  substitute  for  good  draining, 
until  there  be  time  to  plan,  and  safe  opportunity  to  estab- 
lish such.  It  is  further  to  be  noted,  that  it  is  chiefly  when 
the  poison  of  drains,  &c,  is  caught  and  retained  under 
cover,  and  is  there  mixed  with  the  breath,  that  it  becomes 
very  active,  for  scavengers,  night-men,  and  grave-diggers, 
who  work  in  the  open  air,  are  not  often  assailed  with  dis- 
ease ;  and  in  foul  neighborhoods,  persons  like  butchers, 
who  live  in  open  shops,  or  policemen,  who  walk  generally 
in  the  open  streets,  or  in  Paris,  the  people  who  manufac- 
ture a  great  part  of  the  town-filth  into  portable  manure, 
suffer  very  little. 

"  To  illustrate  the  efficacy  of  ventilation  or  dilution  with 
fresh  air,  in  rendering  quite  harmless  any  aerial  poison,  I 
may  adduce  the  explanation  given  in  a  report  of  mine  on 
fevers,  in  1840,  of  the  fact,  that  the  malaria  or  infection  of 
marsh  fevers,  such  as  occur  in  the  Pontine  marshes  near 
Rome,  and  of  all  the  deadly  tropical  fevers,  affects  persons 
almost  only  in  the  night.  Yet  the  malaria  or  poison  from 
decomposing  organic  matters  which  causes  these  fevers,  is 
formed  during  the  day,  under  the  influence  of  the  hot  sun, 
still  more  abundantly  than  during  the  colder  night  ;  but 
in  the  day,  the  direct  beams  of  the  sun  warm  the  surface  of 
the  earth  so  intensely,  that  any  air  touching  that  surface  is 
similarly  heated,  and  rises  away  like  a  fire-balloon,  carry- 
ing up  with  it,  of  course,  and  much  diluting,  all  poisonous 
malaria  formed  there.  During  the  night,  on  the  contrary, 
the  surface  of  the  earth  no  longer  receiving  the  sun's  rays, 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  181 

soon  radiates  away  its  heat,  so  that  a  thermometer  lying  on 
Jhe  ground  is  found  to  be  several  degrees  colder  than  ono 
hanging  in  the  air  a  few  feet  above.  The  poison  formed 
near  the  ground,  therefore,  at  night,  instead  of  being 
heated  and  lifted,  and  quickly  disssipated,  as  during  the 
day,  is  rendered  cold  and  comparatively  dense,  and  lies  on 
the  earth  a  concentrated  mass,  which  it  may  be  death  to 
inspire.  Hence,  the  value  in  such  situations  of  sleeping 
apartments  near  the  top  of  a  house,  or  of  apartments  below, 
which  shut  out  the  night  air,  and  are  large  enough  to  con- 
tain a  sufficient  supply  of  the  purer  day  air  for  the  persons 
using  them  at  night,  and  of  mechanical  meaus  of  taking 
down  pure  air  from  above  the  house  to  be  a  supply  during 
the  night.  At  a  certain  height  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  atmosphere  being  nearly  of  equal  purity  all  the 
earth  over,  a  man  rising  in  a  balloon,  or  obtaining  air  for 
his  house,  from  a  certain  elevation,  might  be  considered  to 
have  changed  his  country,  any  peculiarity  of  the  atmosphere 
below,  owing  to  the  great  dilution  effected  before  it  reached 
the  height,  becoming  absolutely  insensible. 

"  Now,  in  regard  to  the  dilutiou  of  aerial  poisons  in 
houses  by  ventilation,  I  have  to  explain,  that  every  chim- 
ney in  a  house  is  what  is  called  a  sucking  or  drawing  air- 
pnmp,  of  a  certain  force,  and  can  easily  be  rendered  a 
valuable  ventilating  pump.  A  chimney  is  a  purnp — first, 
by  reason  of  the  suction  or  approach  to  a  vacuum  made  at 
the  open  top  of  any  tube  across  which  the  wind  blows 
directly  ;  and,  secondly,  because  the  flue  is  usually 
occupied,  even  when  there  is  no  fire,  by  air  somewhat 
warmer  than  the  external  air,  and  has,  therefore,  even  in  a 
calm  day,  what  is  called  a  chimney-draught  proportioned 
to  the  difference.  In  England,  therefore,  of  old,  when  the 
chimney-breast  was  always  made  higher  than  the  heads  of 
persons  sitting  or  sleeping  in  rooms,  a  room  with  an  open 
chimney  was  tolerably  well  ventilated  in  the  lower  part, 
where  the  inmates  breathed.     The  modern  fashion,   how- 


182  THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE   BUILDER. 

ever,  of  very  low  grates  and  low  chimney  openings,  has 
changed  the  case  completely,  for  such  openings  tan  draw 
air  only  from  the  bottom  of  the  rooms,  where  generally  the 
coolest,  the  last  entered,  and  therefore  the  purest  air,  is 
found,  while  the  hotter  air  of  the  breath,  of  lights,  of  warm 
food,  and  often  of  subterranean  drains,  &c,  rises  and  stag- 
nates near  the  ceilings,  and  gradually  corrupts  there. 
Such  heated,  impure  air,  no  more  tends  downward  again  to 
escape  or  dive  under  the  chimney-piece,  than  oil  in  an 
inverted  bottle  immersed  in  water  will  dive  down  through 
the  water  to  escape  by  the  bottle's  mouth  ;  and  such  a 
bottle  or  other  vessel  containing  oil,  and  so  placed  in  water 
with  its  open  mouth  downwards,  even  if  left  in  a  running 
stream,  would  retain  the  oil  for  any  length  of  time.  If, 
however,  an  opening  be  made  into  a  chimney  flue  through 
the  wall  near  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  then  will  all  the  hot, 
impure  air  of  the  room  as  certainly  pass  away  by  that 
opening,  as  oil  from  the  inverted  bottle  would  instantly  all 
escape  upwards  through  a  small  opening  made  near  the 
elevated  bottom  of  the  bottle.  A  top  window-sash,  lowered 
a  little,  instead  of  serving,  as  many  people  believe  it  does, 
like  such  an  opening  into  the  chimney  flue,  becomes 
generally,  in  obedience  to  the  chimney  draught,  merely  an 
inlet  of  cold  air,  which  first  falls  as  a  cascade  to  the  floor, 
and  then  glides  towards  the  chimney,  and  gradually  passes 
away  by  this,  leaving  the  hotter  impure  air  of  the  room 
nearly  untouched. 

"  For  years  past,  I  have  recommended  the  adoption  of 
such  ventilating  chimney  openings  as  above  described,  and 
I  devised  a  balanced  metallic  valve,  to  prevent,  during  the 
use  of  fires,  the  escape  of  smoke  to  the  room.  The  advan- 
tages of  these  openings  and  valves  were  soon  so  manifest, 
that  the  referees  appointed  under  the  Building  Act  added 
a  clause  to  their  bill  allowing  the  introduction  of  the  valves, 
and  directing  how  they  were  to  be  placed,  and  they  are 
now  in  very    extensive  use.     A  good  illustration  of  the 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER  183 

subject  was  afforded  in  St.  James's  parish,  w  nere  some  quar- 
ters are  densely  inhabited  l>y  the  families  of  Irish  laborers. 
These  localities  formerly  sent  au  enormous  number  of  sick 
to  the  neighboring  dispensary.  Mr.  Toynbee,  the  able 
medical  chief  of  that  dispensary,  came  to  consult  me  respect- 
ing the  ventilation  of  such  places;  and,  on  my  recom- 
mendation, had  openings  made  into  the  chimney  flues  of 
the  rooms  near  the  ceilings,  by  removing  a  single  brick, 
and  placing  there  a  piece  of  wire  gauze,  with  a  light  cur- 
tain-flap  hanging  against  the  inside,  to  prevent  the  issue  of 
smoke  in  gusty  weather.  The  decided  effect  produced  at 
once  on  the  feelings  of  the  inmates  was  so  remarkable,  that 
there  was  an  extensive  demand  for  the  new  appliance,  and, 
as  a  consequence  of  its  adoption,  Mr.  Toynbee  had  soon 
to  report,  in  evidence  given  before  the  Health  of  Towns 
Commission,  and  in  other  published  documents,  both  an 
extraordinary  reductiou  of  the  number  of  sick  applying  for 
relief,  and  of  the  severity  of  diseases  occurring.  "Wide 
experience  elsewhere  has  since  obtained  similar  results. 
Must  of  the  hospitals  and  poor-houses  in  the  kingdom  now 
have  these  chimney-valves  ;  and  most  of  the  medical  men 
and  others  who  have  published  of  late  on  sanitary  matters, 
have  strongly  commended  them.  Had  the  present  Board 
of  Health  possessed  the  power,  and  deemed  the  means 
expedient,  the  chimney  openings  might,  as  a  prevention  of 
cholera,  almost  in  one  day,  and  at  the  expense  of  about  a 
shilling  for  a  poor  man's  room,  have  been  established  over 
the  whole  kingdom. 

"  Mr.  Simpson,  the  registrar  of  deaths  for  St.  Giles's  par- 
ish, an  experienced  practitioner,  whose  judgment  I  value 
much,  related  to  me,  lately,  that  he  had  been  called  to  visit 
a  house  in  one  of  the  crowded  courts,  to  register  the  death 
of  an  inmate  from  cholera.  He  found  live  other  persons 
living  in  the  room,  which  was  most  close  and  offensive. 
He  advised  the  immediate  removal  of  all  to  other  lodgings. 
A  second  died  before  the  removal  took  place,  and  soon  after, 


184  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

in.  the  poor-house  and  elsewhere,  three  others  died  who  had 

breathed  the  foul  air  of  that  room.    Mr.  Simpson  expressed 

to  nae  his  belief  that  if  there  had  been  the  opening  described 

above,  into  the  chimney  near  the  ceiling,  this  horrid  his 

tory  would  not  have  been  to  tell.     I  believe  so  too,  and  I 

believe  there  have  been  in  London,  lately,  very  many  similar 
cases." 

Among  other  modes  of  spontaneous  ventilation,  may  be 
mentioned  the  mulguf,  or  wind-conductor,  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  still  in  use  in  modern  Egypt.     It  was  erect- 
ed at  the  top  of  the  house,  and  consisted  of  a  frame  covered 
or  enclosed  on  all  sides,  except  at  the  mouths,  which  were 
open  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  The  roof  of  the 
mulguf  sloped  down  from  each  open  end  to  the  centre,  where 
a  partition  divided  it,  and  deflected  the  wind  down  into  the 
apartments  below.     Mr.  Wilkinson,  in  his  work  on  Egypt, 
gives  a  view  of  part  of  Cairo,  showing  the  mulgufs  on  the 
houses  of  the  modern  Egyptians.   The  ancient  mulgufs  were 
double,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  but  the  modern  ones  are 
single,  and  the  opening  is  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
north-west  wind.      They  consist  of  a  strong  frame-work,  to 
which  several  planks  of  wood  are  nailed,  according  to  the 
breadth  and  length  proposed;  and,  if  required  of  cheaper 
materials,   reeds   or   mats,   covered  with  stucco,   are  used 
instead  of  planks. 

This  contrivance  acts  on  a  similar  principle  to  the  wind- 
sail  used  on  boai'd  ships,  which  consists  of  a  sail  spread  out 
to  the  wind :  from  the  lower  part  proceeds  a  cylinder  of 
canvas,  distended  by  hoops,  which  may  be  carried  down 
through  the  hatches,  to  any  deck  or  hold  where  fresh  air  is 
required.  Its  action  depends  on  the  force  of  the  wind,  and 
the  mode  of  arranging  it.  It  is  of  no  use  in  calm  weather, 
when  ventilation  is  often  most  needed :  and  it  is  equally 
unavailable  in  stormy  weather,  when  the  hatches  are  bat- 
tened clown,  and  the  men  crowded  below.  Indeed,  unless 
some  contrivance  could  be  made  for  getting  rid  of  the  vitiat- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  Ii'5 

cd  air  by  other  openings,  the  supply  of  fresh  air  by  the  wind- 
sail  must  always  be  partial  and  defective. 

The  next  class  of  mechanical  contrivances  for  ventilation, 
is  that  in  which  the  aid  of  an  attendant  is  required,  either 
to  maintain  the  ventilating  machine  in  motion,  or  to  super- 
intend the  mechanical  power  that  does  so.  The  simplest  of 
these  contrivances  is  the  fan,  which  has  been  used  from  time 
immemorial,  especially  in  warm  climates,  where  it  is  often 
made  of  an  enormous  size,  and  being  wielded  by  an  attend- 
ant with  a  dexterity  acquired  by  long  practice,  its  effect  is 
very  powerful  in  giving  motion  to  the  air,  and  producing 
the  sensation  of  coolness,  by  bringing  a  larger  supply  to  the 
person,  and  abstracting  the  heat  by  its  motion.  The  punkah, 
as  commonly  used  in  India,  is  nothing  more  than  a  gigantic 
fan,  suspended  in  the  centre  of  the  apartment,  above  a  bed 
or  table.  Attached  to  one  side  is  a  line,  which  passes  out 
of  the  apartment  through  the  wall,  to  an  attendant  on  the 
outside,  who  thus  gives  motion  to  the  large  extended  surface 
within,  and  thus  prevents  the  air  from  stagnating. 

A  machine  called  the  zephyr  was  proposed  some  year? 
ago  by  Mr.  Dobsox,  for  giving  motion  to  the  air  of  a  room 
Two  sails,  or  punkahs,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles, 
were  mounted  on  a  frame,  and  a  rotary  motion  was  given 
thereto,  by  suspending  it  from  a  case  containing  a  mechan- 
ism like  that  of  a  bottle-jack.  This  case  was  suspended  by 
lines  passing  over  pullics  in  the  ceiling,  and  balanced  by 
weights,  so  that  the  sails  could  be  made  to  play  at  any 
elevation.  In  all  these  contrivances,  motiou  is  given  to  the 
air,  but  the  rooms  containing  them  are  not  ventilated  there- 
by; the  vitiated  air  is  whirled  and  whisked  about,  but  nut 
driven  out,  and  its  place  supplied  by  fresh  air. 

We  have  stated,  as  fully  as  the  limits  of  this  work  will 
allow,  the  principles  which  should  govern  in  warming  and 
ventilating  houses,  so  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  judge  cor- 
rectly as  to  the  best  mode  to  adopt  in  any  particular  case. 


186  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


MODEL  COTTAGE. 


This  cut  is  au  elevatiou  of  the  Model  Cottages  erected  by 
Prince  Albert,  near  the  Great  London  World's  Fair  Exhi- 
bition. We  insert  it,  not  on  account  of  any  intrinsic  merits 
which  it  possesses,  as  adapted  to  American  occupants,  but 
as  a  compliment  to  its  notoriety.  The  building  is  intended 
for  four  families — two  on  each  floor.  Each  family  will  be 
blessed  with  one  living-room,  one  bed-room  and  one  pantry. 

The  only  peculiarity  in  the  Model  Cottages,  worthy  of 
especial  attention,  is  the  "  Hollow  Brick,"  with  which  the 
walls  are  built.  These  brick  are,  it  is  claimed,  more  dry 
and  warm  than  solid  brick,  and,  at  the  same  time,  are 
twenty-five  per  cent  cheaper  in  their  cost. 

The  annexed  section  is  illustrative  of  the  construction 
represented  in  Prince  Albert's  Model  Houses.  The  span  of 
the  arches  being  increased  over  the  living-rooms  to  10  feet 
4  inches,  with  a  proportionate  addition  to  their  rise.  The 
external  springers  are  of  cast-iron,  with  brick  cores,  con- 
nected with  wrought-iron  tie-rods. 

1  and  2,  represents  the  plan  of  window  and  door  jambs, 
on  alternate  courses. 

3.  Partition  block. 

4  and  5.  Plan  of  angles,  on  alternate  courses. 

6.  Square  jamb  and  chimney  brick. 

1.  Section  of  a  one  foot  and  two  inch  wall. 

8.  Internal  door  and  chimney  brick. 

These  hollow  bricks  have  never  been  used  in  this 
country:  they  are,  however,  used  in  France,  where  they  are 
of  a  different  form  from  the  English,  being  about  five  inches 


THE  AMERICAN'  COTTAGE  BUILDER. 


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than  the  English  brick,  by  about  one  third. 

Joseph  E.  Holmes,  Esq.  director  of  the  machine  depart- 
ment in  the  New  York  Worlds  Fair,  in  connection  with  Mr. 
F.  B.  Taylor,  has  invented  a  machine  for  the  manufacture 
of  hollow  brick,  which  will  undoubtedly  be  successful. 

The  frequent  use  of  hollow  brick  in  this  country  is  not 
far  distant. 

The  process  of  the  manufacture  of  hollow  brick,  would, 
I  doubt  not,  be  quite  interesting  to  my  readers,  but  the 
limits  of  the  work  will  not  permit  me  to  give  it. 


188  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BOLDER. 

I  hope  that  the  day  is  far  distant  when  Prixce  Albert's 
Model  Cottages  will  be  thought  an  appropriate  residence  for 
an  American  laborer. 

The  room  is  too  confined,  the  size  is  too  small  for  our 
people. 

Prixce  Albert  deserves  great  credit  for  aiding  in  bring- 
ing to  the  English  laborer  such  cottages;  they  are  by  far 
more  comfortable  than  those  which  the  bulk  of  their  laborers 
enjoy.  But  with  us,  the  case  is  different;  nine-tenths  of 
our  laborers  and  Mechanics  live  in  far  better  residences  than 
the  "Model  Cottage."  To  us,  Prince  Albert's  Model 
House  possesses  no  value — except  as  the  ideas  advanced  by 
its  peculiar  mode  of  construction. 


THE    AMERrCAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


189 


CHAPTER     XII. 


RURAL  COTTAGE. 


The  above  is  a  representation  of  the  residence  of  Alex- 
ander Davis,  Esq.  Stuyvesant,  New  York.  The  architect 
is  Robert  Warrv,  Esq.  It  is  situated  on  a  bank  above  tbe 
railroad,  and  commands  a  pleasant  though  not  very  exten- 
sive view  of  the  Hudson  River.  The  house  wears  an  air  of 
convenience,  gentility  and  comfort. 


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BASEMENT    PLAN. 


190 


THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


PLAN   OF   THE    FIRST   FLOOR. 


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THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  191 

The  cellar  or  basement,  is  all  in  one  room,  and  that  the 
whole  size  of  the  house,  with  two  brick  pillars,  supporting 
the  centre  of  a  timber  each,  on  which  a  part  of  the  floor 
timbers  rest. 

The  thickness  of  the  foundation  walls  is  two  feet,  except 
the  front  above  ground,  which  is  brick  twenty  inches  thick. 
The  thickness  of  the  first  and  second  story  walls  is  sixteen 
inches,  with  four-inch  opening,  or  hollow  wall,  and  plas- 
tered on  the  brick.  In  the  Chapter  on  "  Model  Cottages," 
and  in  the  Chapter  on  "  The  Various  Pabts,"  the  advan- 
tages of  building  walls  with  hollow  bricks,  are  discussed.  It 
will  be  observed  that  all  the  advantages  of  the  hollow  brick, 
are  gained  by  building  the  walls  apart,  and  plastering  on 
the  brick.     The  walls  are  impervious  to  dampness. 

There  is  a  cistern  in  the  rear,  as  also  a  well  near  the 
kitchen  door.  The  same  pump  in  the  sink,  supplies  the 
water  from  either.  The  design  is,  that  the  house  be  warm- 
ed by  a  heater,  in  the  basement,  although  it  may  be  heated 
by  stoves. 

The  house  fronts  on  the  Hudson  River,  nearly  west.  It 
is  drained  by  pipes  running  under  the  door-sill,  through  the 
cellar  into  cess-pools. 

The  cost  of  this  house  was  six  thousand  dollars, — built 
of  brick;  but  if  it  were  made  of  wood,  it  would  lessen  the 
cost  very  materially.  The  cellar  is  very  large — larger  than 
most  families  desire. 

The  expense  of  building  could  be  much  cheapened  in  the 
construction  of  the  foundation  and  cellar.  An  additional 
closet  or  two,  would,  perhaps,  add  to  its  convenience.  The 
house  is  painted  yellow,  which  harmonizes  with  the  sur- 
rounding objects,  giving  it  a  neat,  tasty  appearance.  Houses 
might  be  built  of  wood  after  this  design,  retaining  all  its 
convenient  arrangement,  for  from  $3,500  to  $5,000,  varying 
according  to  the  place  in  which  it  was  built — the  price  of  ma- 
terials and  labor  being  different  in  different  localities, 


192  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


OCTAGON     COTTAGE. 

The  Cottage  of  Octagon  Form  possesses  some  valuable 
points  in  the  economical  arrangement  of  room. 

The  engraving  of  "  Octagon  Cottage"  is  a  perspective 
view  of  the  residence  of  0.  S.  Fowler,  Esq.,  the  Phrenolo. 
gist.     The  design  is  by  Mr.  Fowler  himself. 

PLAN    OF    BASEMENT. 

There  are  sixty  rooms  in  the  house.  The  arrangement 
is  novel  and  peculiar.  All  the  cellar  is  above  ground,  except 
the  holes  C,  L,  and  M. 

M  is  the  milk  apartment. 

A  P,  is  the  room  for  fruits  and  vegetables. 

K  S,  is  the  kitchen-stove  apartment;  in  its  corner  is  a 
closet  C,  and  stove-pipe  hole  <S. 

W  R,  is  the  wash-room,  in  one  corner  of  which  is  a  cis. 
tern. 

C  is  the  cistern. 

K  is  the  kitchen. 

At  the  left  of  the  cistern  is  the  dark  cellar  C. 

L  is  the  lumber-room. 

S  T,  is  the  stove-room. 

F  E,  front  entrance  ;  R  E,  rear  entrance. 

R  R,  receiving-room. 

F,  furnace. 

G,  gas  apparatus. 

R,  range ;   C  L,  clothes-press ;  P,  pantry. 
W  D,  workmen's  dining-room. 
T"  S,  winter  sitting-room. 


rr.AN    OF    RA*EMKNT    Or    OCTAOON     COTTAGE 


[B«tp  la"?  1 


PLAN    OF   PRINCIPAL    STORY    OK    OCTAGON    COTTAGE  [Sw  p.    103.] 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER,  1 '.'3 

Pr.AN    OF    PRINCIPAL    STORY. 

The  main  story  is  surrounded  with  a  portico,  w  Inch  makes 
it  very  desirable  as  a  southern  residence,  where  shade  is  at 
once  a  necessity  and  a  luxury.  The  portico  is  a  covered 
circle  (around  the  house)  of  three  hundred  feet. 

F  E,  front  entrance  ;  R  E,  rear  entrance. 

S,  stairway. 

TV,  dumb  waiter. 

D  r,  drawing-room. 

D  i,  dining-room. 

P  r,  parlor. 

Am.  Amusement-room. 

TV  S,  winter  sitting-room. 

L,  library. 

B,  bed-room. 

F,  sleeping-room. 

"There  are  two  stories  to  the  ice  house — the  upper  one 
for  ice — the  lower,  a  room  kept,  by  the  ice  and  its  dripping, 
as  a  preservatory  for  fruit,  butter,  eggs,  &c.  The  melt- 
ing ice  keeps  this  room  at  a  temperature  just  above  the 
freezing  point,  and  surrounded  by  stifled  and  cold  air,  so 
that  its  preserving  powers  are  remarkable." 

The  ice-water  is  gathered  at  the  door,  under  whieh  it 
ruus  through  a  lead  pipe,  bent  up  like  a  new  moon,  which 
allows  water  to  pass  out,  but  prevents  air. 

It  passes  into  the  cellar,  C,  L,  and  the  milk  closet  M,  which 
also  has  two  stories,  the  lower  for  preserves,  and  the  top  for 
milk,  having  two  floors,  which  admits  the  cold  air  up  into 
the  milk  room  yet,  prevents  dirt  from  descending  by  the 
lower. 

The  walls  are  of  gravel-concrete — slate,  stones,  and  gravel 
mixed  with  lime  of  the  coarsest  kind,  such  as  farmers  put 
upon  their  land  for  4|  cents  per  bushel.  To  eight  wheel- 
barrow loads  of  lime  were  added  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
oarrows  of  sand,  and  then  from  sixty  to  eighty  barrows  of 

coarse  rubble  stone. 

9 


194  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

This  gravel-concrete  becomes  harder  the  longer  it  is 
exposed  to  the  weather.  It  may  be  desirable  to  put  some 
stone  within  the  wall,  so  as  to  keep  it  in  its  place,  until  it 
becomes  thoroughly  hard. 

The  ground  story  walls  are  nine  feet  high,  and  eighteen 
inches  thick;  those  of  the  second  story  are  fourteen  feet 
high  and  sixteen  inches  thick;  those  of  the  third  story  twelve 
feet  high,  and  twelve  inches  thick.  The  walls  are  anchored 
and  plastered  outside  and  in.  The  cost  of  the  brick  is  ten 
times  that  of  this  gravel-concrete.  Mr.  Fowler,  in  his  work, 
"  Homes  For  All,"  urges  the  adoption  of  octagon  houses,  built 
with  walls  of  gravel-concrete  as  the  best  for  "  all."  He  con- 
siders that  "  masons'  wages  and  the  cost  of  the  brick  are  saved." 

The  octagon  form  of  the  house  makes  a  far  more  economi- 
cal and  convenient  arrangement  of  room,  than  the  square. 

Some  houses  in  New  Jersey,  near  New  York  city,  are 
built  of  a  concrete  which  is  much  similar  to  Mr.  Fowler's. 
The  foundation  being  laid,  the  walls  of  the  building  were 
formed  thus:  a  strip  of  board  about  five  inches  wide  and  one 
thick  is  laid  on  the  foundation  wall.  On  this  strip  another 
Strip  of  the  same  width  is  nailed,  but  projects  over  the  first 
strip  half  an  inch ;  the  third  strip  is  nailed  on  the  second 
strip,  and  projects  over  the  opposite  side,  about  one  half  an 
inch  ;  these  strips  are  laid  on  projecting  over  each  other 
alternately,  the  outside  half  an  inch,  and  the  inside  half  an 
inch.  In  this  way  the  whole  wall  is  laid,  presenting,  when 
complete,  a  series  of  grooves  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
walls,  an  inch  apart.  These  walls  are  plastered  up,  outside 
and  in,  with  a  sort  of  stucco  or  concrete,  which  hardens  with 
age,  and  becomes  as  solid  as  stone.  It  is  less  impervious  to 
the  rain  than  brick,  and  is  a  very  cheap  mode  of  building 
•  The  plan  of  the  house  may  be  either  square  or  octagon,  as 
shall  be  desired. 

The  cost  of  Mr.  Fowler's  house  was  about  ten  thousand 
dollars.  The  octagon  form  is  adapted  to  smaller  cottage  ; 
than  Mr.  Fowler's,  to  school  houses,  and  public  buildings 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BtflLDER.  195 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  is  an  important  matter  in  the  building  of  cot- 
3,  as  on  it  depends  the  health  and  convenience  of  the 
occupants. 

In  suburban  residences,  almost  invariably,  the  water  is 
supplied  by  "water-works,"  from  the  adjoining-  city,  and 
the  refuse  water  is  taken  off  by  drains  into  the  sewers  of 
the  street.  Water-closets,  baths  and  wash-basins  arc  a 
part  of  the  fixtures  of  the  house,  and  in  the  basement  a 
boiler  is  so  connected  with  the  range,  that  hot  water  is 
forced  through  pipes  to  any  desired  place  in  the  building 

Jt  h  estimated  that  the  inhabitants  of  towns  will  consume 
on  an  average  twenty  gallons  of  water  for  each  person. 
This  quantity  would  be  sufficient  to  allow  also  for  an 
ordinary  proportion  of  manufacturing  operations,  for  the 
supply  of  public  buildings,  and  for  the  extinction  of  fires. 

When  baths  are  used,  not  less  than  fifty-four  gallons  of 
water  should  be  provided  for  tin-  ablution  of  each  person. 

The  necessity  for  a  constanl  supply  of  pure  water,  great 
as  it  is  in  all  buildings,  is  still  more  important  in  supplj 
those  of  which  the  demand  is  of  a  variable  character.  In 
certain  seasons,  when  the  occasion  for  the  repeated  bathing 
of  persons  and  cleansing  of  apartments  is  greatest,  these 
duties  recmire  a  much  larger  quantity  of  water  than  will 
suffice  at  other  periods;  and  this  demand  of  course  increa 
in  t  lie  same  ratio  with  the  number  of  persons  to  be  supplied. 
In  prisons,  asylums,  and  public  buildings,  the  quantity  of 
water  required  varies  considerably  from  time  to  tin:.',  and 
all  methods  of  supply  short  of  constant  service,  and  all 
provisions  for  storage  fail,  in  one  way  or  another,  in  secur- 
ing the  constanl  and  unlimited  command  of  fresh  and  pure 


196  THE    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

water.  These  house-tanks,  cisterns,  and  reservoirs,  how- 
ever capacious  and  well-designed,  serve  to  receive  only 
limited  quantities,  and  if  these  be  ample  for  all  purposes,  it 
follows  that  if  the  consumption  be  Jessened,  the  greater 
quantity  of  water  will  remain  in  a  stagnant  condition,  to  be 
added  to,  but  not  replaced,  by  the  next  delivery  from  the 
main.  The  lower  body  of  water  in  the  cistern  will  thus 
remain  slightly  changed,  and  stirred  up  only,  and  in  this 
way  a  low  bed  of  impure  water,  surcharged  and  rendered 
heavy  with  deposited  matter,  gradually  accumulates,  suffer- 
ing a  slow  diminution  by  the  proportion  drawn  off  for  imme- 
diate use.  Pure  or  fresh  water  is  by  this  arrangement  put 
altogether  out  of  the  question. 

In  cases  where  the  constant  supply  of  water  cannot  be 
obtained,  and  in  consequence  it  becomes  necessary  to  provide 
cisterns  for  buildings,  they  should  be  so  constructed  and 
furnished  as  to  combine  the  operation  of  filtering  with  the 
purpose  of  storing  the  water.  For  this  purpose,  the  best 
form  of  cisterns  will  be  that  of  which  the  bed  inclines  down- 
wards, so  that  the  discharge-pipe  may  be  inserted  at  the 
lowest  point,  and  the  water  always  drained  from  that  part 
of  the  cistern.  The-  material  used  being  commonly  slate, 
the  bottom  may  still  be  formed  in  a  single  slab  for  house 
cisterns,  (so  as  to  avoid  extra  joints,)  declining  in  both 
directions.  The  filtering  media,  consisting  of  beds  of  sand 
and  gravel,  of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  will  be  arrang- 
ed in  horizontal  layers,  excepting  the  lower  one,  which  will 
lie  in  the  bottom  of  the  cistern,  and  be  dressed  to  a  level  on 
its  upper  surface.  The  head  of  the  discharge-pipe  should  be 
protected  with  a  fine  wire-gauze  cap,  to  prevent  the  gravel 
washing  in  the  pipe.  Below  this  pipe  another  cistern  for  the 
filtered  water  should  be  provided  of  proportionate  capa- 
city; and  if  the  process  be  too  tedious  to  admit  of  the 
filtration  of  all  the  water  used,  that  for  inferior  purposes 
may  be  drawn  from  a  pipe  entering  the  cisterns  just  above 
the  filterincr-becls. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  191 

The  superior  quality  of  rain-water  in  respect  to  its  soft' 
ness,  as  compared  with  water  from  all  other  sources,  render! 
it  exceedingly  desirable,  in  an  economical  view,  that  all  the 
supply  requisite  from  this  source  should  be  carefully  collect- 
ed and  preserved.     In  towns  and  cities,  this  water  is  com- 
monly wasted,  or,  at  least,  allowed  to  subserve  the  inferior 
purpose  of  assisting  the  flow  of  drainage.    Yet  the  quantity 
which  might,  by  efficient  arrangements,  be  commanded  of 
this  superior  water,  is  by  no  meaus  insignificant.     The  roof 
of  a  house  of  average  dimensions  of  twenty  feet  square, 
presenting  a  plaue  surface  of  four  hundred  square  feet,  re- 
ceives at  least  eight  hundred  cubic  feet  of  rain-water  annually, 
or  about  four  thousand  eight  hundred  gallons.     If  well-con- 
structed and  capacious  gutters  are  provided,  this  quantity 
may  be  collected  with  little  loss  from  evaporation,  and  will 
form  a  reserve  stock  for  such  special  household  purposes  as 
it  is  peculiarly  adapted  for.     This  quantity  should  be  imme- 
diately received  in  a  filtering  tank,  and  the  best  available 
method  be  adopted  of  purifying  it  from  the  carbonaceous 
matters  with  which  it  becomes  saturated  in  passing  through 
a  smokey  atmosphere  and  flowing  over  roof-surfaces  covered 
with   a  deposit  of  similar  impurity.     An   economical  and 
well-devised  apparatus  for  effecting  this  purpose,  ami  appli- 
cable to  private  buildings  of  all  classes,  is  a  desideratum  y<  t 
wanting  in  the  economical  supply  of  water. 

If  rain-water  be  not  collected  for  household  cleansing 
purposes,  it  should  at  least  be  made  as  efficient  as  possible 
for  scouring  the  house-drains.  In  many  houses  the  rain- 
water is  conducted  into  a  cistern,  the  lower  part  of  which 
should  be  formed  like  an  inverted  cone,  and  fitted  with  a 
conical  valve  at  the  head  of  a  pipe,  discharging  into  the 
house-drain.  This  conical  valve  is  to  be  attached  to  a  ver- 
tical chain  above  it,  and  connected  with  the  short  end  of  a 
lever,  to  the  other  arm  of  which  a  cord  or  chain  is  fixed,  and 
by  which  the  valve  may  be  occasionally  removed  from  its  -  a 
and  the  water  discharged  from  the  cistern  into  the  drain- 


198  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

pipe  below  the  valve,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cistern  overflow- 
ing, in  case  the  water  accumulates  faster  than  it  is  discharged; 
the  lower  end  of  the  waste-pipe  being  trapped,  to  p/event 
the  effluvium  in  the  drain-pipe  passing  into  the  cistern. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  occasional  services  for 
which  a  supply  of  water  is  required  for  application  to  build- 
ings is  the  extinction  of  accidental  fires.  For  extensive 
buildings,  tanks  have  been  adopted,  in  which  a  considerable 
quantity  may  be  stored  and  ready  for  instant  application 
for  this  purpose.  This  arrangement  is,  however,  scarcely 
applicable  for  private  buildings ;  and,  where  it  is  employed, 
the  quantity  commanded  is  of  course  limited,  and  can  never 
be  safely  trusted  to  as  affording  an  adequate  supply  for 
extinguishing  the  fire.  In  this  application  of  water,  again, 
the  system  of  constant  service  offers  great  advantages. 
Thus,  if  the  mains  are  always  kept  filled,  an  adequate  supply 
is  at  all  times  at  hand  in  every  direction,  and  the  grievous 
losses  and  dangers  incurred  by  delay  in  obtaining  water  on 
these  occasions  are  avoided. 

The  combination  of  high  service  with  constant  service  in 
the  supply  of  water,  also  affords  the  means  of  instantly 
applying  jets  of  water  upon  the  fire  until  the  fire  or  pumping 
engines  arrive.  These  jets  are  thus  available  as  substitutes 
for  the  engines,  and  the  experiments  made  to  ascertain  the 
height  to  which  a  jet  of  water  will  rise  from  the  main  and 
service-pipes  under  a  fixed  pressure,  have  shown  consider- 
able facility  in  applying  jets  for  this  purpose  and  a  corres- 
ponding efficiency  in  their  actions.  The  practical  limit  to 
this  mode  of  delivery  appears  to  arise  from  the  extent  of 
supply  required,  the  economy  of  the  use  of  jets  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  pressure  that  can  be  obtained,  and  the 
small  number  of  jets  which  will  suffice  for  the  extinction  of 
the  fire.  The  available  power  in  this  instance  is  found  to 
decrease  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  employed, 
and  the  loss  by  friction  in  the  leather  hose  reduces  the 
delivery,  and,  consequently,  the  height  or  force  of  the  jet 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  199 

2£  per  cent,  fur  every  40  lineal  feet  of  hose  through  whick 
the  water  passes. 

The  following  experiments  show  the  action  of  water 
through  the  pip'-  : 

The  first  experiment  was  made  over  an  extent  of  800 
yards  of  7-inch  main,  which  were  connected  with  500  yards 
of  9-inch:  this  length  being- joined  to  200  yards  of  12-inch, 
continued  by  550  yards  of  15-inch  main  to  the  great  main — 
5,500  yards  distant.  The  height  to  which  the  water  was 
thrown  from  2^-inch  stand-pipes,  with  40  feet  of  hose  and  a 
|-inch  jet,  were  as  follows  ; — 

With  1  stand-pipe  the  water  rose  ....  50  feet. 

i.       2  ••  "  "  45     " 

<i       3           "             <<              "  ....  40     " 

«       4           "             "              "  ....  35    " 

•<       5           "             "              "  ....  30    " 

u       g           "              •'               '<  ....  27     " 

When  all  the  fire-plugs  on  the  main  were  closed,  except 
the  first  and  one  2i-inch  stand-pipe,  and  160  feet  of  hose 
with  a  g-inch  jet  applied,  the  water  rose  to  a  height  of  40 
feet. 

The  quantity  of  water  delivered  from  the  same  (7-inch) 

main  through  one  stand-pipe,  and  different  length  of  hose, 

was  as  follows  : — 

With  40  feet  of  hose  9C  gallons  in  59  seconds. 
'•     80         "  112      "       "   65      " 

"  160         "  116      "       "  70      " 

"     40         "        and  2J-inch  jet,  118  feet  in  27  seconds. 

The  second  experiment  was  made  with  a  9-inch  main 
1,400  yards  in  length,  joined  to  a  15-inch  main  of  1000 
yards  in  length,  and  at  a  distance  of  6,650  yards  from  the 
works.  The  stand-pipes  used  were  2i-inch,  the  hose  10 
feet  long,  and  the  jet  2-inch,  as  before. 

With  1  stand-pipe  the  water  rose  ...        -  60  feet. 

'•2  "  "  "  ....  60    " 

"4  "  '«  "  ....  45     " 

"     fi  u  "  <(  ....  40     M 


200  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

The  quantity  delivered  with  the  same  pipes,  length  of 
hose  and  size  of  jet,  being 

With  1  stand-pipe  114  gallons  in      ....        64  seconds. 
«     4  H5        «  ....        75      " 

"      C  "         112         "  ....        78       " 

These  experiments,  with  the  two  sizes  of  main-pipe,  will 

indicate  the  rate  at  which  the  quantity  is  diminished  by  the 

friction  of  the  water  in  smaller  pipes,  a  result  confirmed  by 

another  experiment  made  with  the  addition  of  200  yards  of 

4-inch  service  and  200   yards  of  5-inch  pipe  to  the  9-inch 

main,  last  referred  to.     The  hose,  40  feet  long,  and  the  jet? 

^-inch  as  before. 

With  2£-inch  stand-pipe  fixed  on  the  4-inch  service  near  the  5-inch 
pipe,  the  -water  rose  40  feet. 

II       O  (f  (<  t<  t*  II  II  Ql        il 

"    1        "  "  "  fixed  at  the  end  of  service  or 

200  yards  from  5J-inch  pipe,  the  water  rose  34  feet. 
tt     o         '*  -  -  -  u  u     *t      23     ** 

The  quantity  delivered  in  each  of  the  last  four  cases 

being  respectively  as  follows  : — 

112  gallons  in 82   seconds. 

117        " 103      " 

112        "  90 

114        " 118      " 

The  piping  for  the  conveyance  of  water  to  buildings  has 
to  be  graduated  in  capacity  according  to  the  quantity 
required,  in  the  same  way  that  the  mains  and  service-pipes 
are  proportioned  to  the  building  or  buildings  intended  to 
be  served. 

In  some  cases,  in  order  to  provide  very  fine  cold  water  to 
private  houses,  an  iron  cistern,  to  hold  not  less  than  20 
gallons,  is  sunk  eight  or  ten  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the 
cellar,  and  supplied  with  water  through  a  small  lead  pipe 
entering  it  at  the  top,  while  the  water  is  drawn  off  for  use 
through  another  smaller  pipe,  inserted  a  few  inches  above 
the  bottom  of  the  eisteim.  It  would  appear,  however,  that 
the  cleansiag  of  cisterns  thus  situated  must  be  a  somewhat 
troublesome  duty,  and   the  means  of  regular  access  to  a 


THF.    AMERICAN    COTTAGB    BUILDER.  201 

cistern  so  deeply  sunk  in  the  ground  must  involve  a  con- 
siderable additional  expense  in  construction. 

The  several  operations  carried  on  within  a  building  de- 
voted to  manufacturing  purposes  should  afford  the  data  upon 
which  to  determine  the  extent  of  drainage  required  ;  but  the 
most  ready  way  of  estimating  the  amount  of  refuse  waters 
produced,  will  be  reached  by  assuming  this  to  equal  the  sup- 
ply of  water  rendered  to  the  building.  The  application  of 
the  same  rule  to  domestic  buildings  or  dwellings,  admits  of  a 
more  exact  calculation  as  to  the  capacity  of  drains  required ; 
but  these  must  all  alike  be  governed  by  the  principle  that 
ample  capacity  for  immediate  discharge  is  to  be  sought  with 
due  regard  to  the  fact  that  all  passages  for  the  conveyance 
of  liquid  or  semi-liquid  matters  are  efficient  in  proportion  to 
the  narrowness  of  the  surface  over  which  these  matters  are 
required  to  flow.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  results 
which  recent  inquiries  have  established  Sewers  and  drains 
were  formerly  devised  with  the  single  object  of  making  them 
large  enough,  by  which  it  was  supposed  that  their  full  effi- 
ciency was  secured.  But  sluggishness  of  action  is  now 
recognized  as  the  certain  consequence  of  excess  of  surface 
equally  as  of  deficiency  of  declination.  A  small  stream  of 
liquid  matter  extended  over  a  wide  surface,  and  reduced  in 
depth  in  proportion  to  this  width,  suffers  retardation  from 
this  circumstance  as  well  as  from  a  want  of  declivity  in  the 
current.  Hence  a  drain  which  is  disproportionally  large  in 
comparison  to  the  amount  of  drainage,  becomes  an  inopera- 
tive apparatus,  by  reason  of  its  undue  dimensions;  while  if 
the  same  amount  of  drainage  is  concentrated  within  a  more 
limited  channel,  a  greater  rapidity  is  produced,  and  every 
addition  to  the  contents  of  the  drain  aids  by  the  full  force  of 
it-  gravity  in  propelling  the  entire  quantity  forward  to  the 
point  of  discharge. 

There  are  four  conditions  which  are  to  be  regarded  aa 
indispensable  in  the  construction  of  all  drains,  from  all  build- 
ings    whatsoever.     These  conditions  are — First.  That  the 

9* 


202  THE   .  MKRICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

entire  length  of  drain  is  to  be  constructed  and  maintained 
with  sufficient  declivity  towards  the  discbarge  into  the  sewer 
to  enable  the  average  proportion  and  quantity  of  liquid  and 
solid  matters  committed  to  it  to  maintain  a  constant  and 
uninterrupted  motion,  so  that  stagnation  shall  never  occur. 
Second.  That  the  entire  length  of  drain  is  to  be  constructed 
and  maintained  in  a  condition  of  complete  impermeability,  so 
that  no  portion  of  the  matters  put  into  it  shall  escape  from 
it.     Third.  That  the   head   of  the   drain  shall   be  so  effi- 
ciently trapped  that  no  gaseous  or  volatile  properties  or 
products  can  possibly  arise  from  its  contents.     And,  fourth. 
That  the  lower  extremity  of  the  drain,  or  the  point  of  its 
communication  with  the  sewer,  shall  be  so  properly,  com- 
pletely and  durably  formed,  that  no  interruption  to  the  flow 
of  the  drainage  or  escape  shall  there  take  place,  and  that 
no  facility  shall  be  offered  for  the  upward  progress  of  the 
sewage  in  case  the  sewer  becomes  surcharged,  and  thus  tends 
to  produce  such  an  effect. 

These  conditions  appear  so  simple  in  their  statement, 
that  we  are  disposed  to  regard  them  as  self-evident  necessi- 
ties; yet  an  acquaintance  with  the  details  of  house-drainage, 
9$  commonly  regulated,  reveals  the  fact  that  they  have  been 
generally  neglected,  and  that  at  the  best  the  attention  they 
have  received  has  been  most  unwisely  crippled  by  considera- 
tions of  cheapness  in  first  cost  at  the  expense  of  permanent 
economy  and  usefulness.  Thus  we  know  that  house-drains 
are  frequently  laid  with  very  imperfect  fall — not  sufficient, 
indeed,  to  propel  the  matters  sent  into  them,  except  with  the 
aid  of  gushes  of  drainage-water ;  that  they  are  often  com- 
posed of  defective  and  carelessly-built  brickwork,  with  wide 
joints  of  sandy  mortar;  that  the  head  of  the  drain  is  com- 
monly untrapped,  and  that  the  entire  formation  is  badly 
designed  and  defectively  executed.  We  will  endeavor  to 
show  the  arrangements  by  which  the  efficient  action  of  the 
separate  drains  of  houses  and  other  buildings  is  most  likely 
to  be  secured. 


tiik   Au:-.un:.\\   CoriAGE   BUILDER.  203 

The  utmost  practicable  declivity  being  obtained  in  the 
direction  of  the  drain,  the  efficiency  of  its  action  will  be 
further  much  controlled  by  the  construction  adopted  and  the 
kind  of  surface  presented  to  the  sewage.  Any  roughness 
or  irregularity  in  this  surface  will  of  course  impede  the  pass- 
age of  the  sewage,  and  hence  arises  the  necessity  for  the 
greatest  care  in  the  construction,  whatever  the  material 
and  kind  of  formation.  The  first  step  in  the  arrangement 
is  to  collect  the  whole  of  the  drainage  to  one  point — the 
head  of  the  intended  draining  apparatus — and  the  determi- 
nation of  this  poiut  requires  a  due  consideration  of  its  rela- 
tion to  the  other  extremity  ot  the  drain  at  which  the  dis- 
charge into  the  sewer  is  to  take  place.  In  buildings  of 
great  extent  this  will  sometimes  involve  a  good  deal  of 
arrangement,  and  it  will,  perhaps,  become  desirable  to  divide 
the  entire  drainage  into  two  or  more  points  of  delivery,  and 
conduct  it  in  so  many  separate  drains  to  the  receiving  sewer. 
The  length  of  each  drain  being  thus  reduced  to  a  manage- 
able extent,  the  necessary  fall  will  be  more  readily  commanded, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  system  secured. 

All  main  sewers  should  be  formed  with  concave  bottoms, 
to  allow  the  water,  however  small  in  quantity,  passing 
along  with  solid  matter,  to  act  with  the  utmost  possible 
effect  ;  and  they  should  be  evenly  built,  not  only  that  any 
solid  matter  may  be  unobstructed,  but  that  the  force  of  the 
running  water  may  be  as  little  lessened  by  friction  and  dis- 
tribution as  possible.  They  should  have  arched  tops,  and 
be  of  sufficient  height  and  width  to  allow  men  to  pass  along 
to  repair  or  cleanse  them. 

They  should  have  a,  fall  of  not  less  than  1^-inch  in  every 
100  feet  in  length,  and  more  than  this  in  all  cases  where  the 
flow  of  water  is  variable. 

Tluy  should  have  a  constant  flow  of  water  through  them, 
or  powerful  flushes  at  stated  intervals. 

Means  should  be  provided  for  their  complete  ventilation; 
that  is,  fresh  air  should  enter  them  from  a  low  level,  and 


204  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

the  heated  and  foul  air  should  pass  away  at  as  high  a  level 
as  possible. 

All  soilage  drains  are  found  to  be  of  sufficient  dimensions, 
and  the  soil  and  water  find  ample  room  to  pass  along,  in  a 
tube  equal  in  capacity  to  a  cylinder  of  six  inches  in  diameter. 

They  should  have  a  fall  of  not  less  than  one-half  an  inch 
in  every  one  hundred  feet,  under  favorable  circumstances; 
and  when  the  water  is  likely  to  be  small  in  quantity,  as 
much  as  two  to  three  inches. 

They  should  be  made  water-tight,  that  the  liquid  portion 
of  the  soilage  may  not  escape  and  leave  the  solid  matters  in 
the  drain. 

They  should  have  a  constant  flow  of  water  through  them, 
or  water  in  continuous  flushes  on  the  lower  levels,  to  carry 
the  soilage  onward,  and  to  prevent  any  solid  matter  from 
being  deposited  within  them. 

To  prevent  the  foul  air  generated  in  or  returning  by  the 
drains,  the  waste-ways  should  be  double  trapped  by  a  well- 
trap  at  a  sink  where  the  waste  water  enters,  and  by  a  well- 
trap  short  of  the  inlet  to  the  drain. 

All  drains  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  being 
opened  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing,  without  breaking  them, 
and  of  the  displaced  portion  being  afterwards  replaced. 

The  average  quantity  of  water  which  falls  on  a  square 
yard  of  surface,  in  this  country,  is  about  125  gallons,  which 
for  a  building  containing  50  square  yards  of  roof,  give  6,250 
gallons. 

The  best  position  for  a  water  closet  in  any  building,  is 
that  in  which  all  the  waste  water  shall  be  made  the  best  use 
of  in  scouring  the  contents  directly  through  the  pan  of  the 
floset,  and  propelling  them  forward  through  the  private 
drain  into  the  common  sewer.  And  since  the  matters  dis- 
charged into  the  clo?et  will  be — if  the  house-drain  is  reserved 
for  its  proper  use — more  solid  and  less  readily  conveyed 
than  the  other  sewage  matters;  it  will,  moreover,  be  desira- 
ble to  place  the  closet  as  near  as  possible  to  the  point  at 


4      M 


R  V  II  A  L      HO  M  E,     No.   1 


[See  |.  217] 


,-:r:"i  mi    Hi* 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  205 

which  the  drain  discharges  into  the  sewer.  The  velocity 
and  force  of  the  liquid  sewage  are  increased  to  the  lower  or 
sewer  end  of  the  drain,  and  its  effect  is  thus  augmented  in 
scouring  away  the  contributions  of  the  closet.  But  if  this 
preferable  position  cannot  be  commanded  for  the  closet,  it 
must  at  any  rate  he  so  situated  with  regard  to  the  head  of 
the  drain  and  the  inlet  for  the  liquid  sewage,  that  these  shall 
be  behind  or  above  it.  When  the  closet  and  the  house-sink 
are  near  to  each  other,  the  water  from  the  latter  may  be 
conducted  directly  into  the  trap  or  basin  of  the  closet,  and 
thus  secure  at  once  a  rapid  discharge  of  its  contents  and  a 
constant  supply  of  liquid  to  preserve  its  action  and  efficiency. 
The  rudest  form  of  domestic  accommodation  or  open 
privy  over  a  cesspool  is  a  contrivance  which  deserves  notice 
only  on  account  of  its  several  imperfections,  and  which  will, 
it  may  be  hoped,  be  soon  reckoned  among  the  obsolete  mis- 
takes of  our  forefathers.  These  cesspools  are  sometimes 
mere  pits  or  holes  excavated  in  the  ground,  and  the  contents 
of  course  rapidly  permeate  the  surrounding  soil;  by  which 
process  pits  of  this  kind  frequently  are  found  to  drain  them- 
selves, the  perviousness  of  the  material  permitting  the  escape 
of  the  sewage,  so  that  little  accumulation  takes  place  within 
the  pit  itself  until  the  whole  neighborhood  becomes  fully 
saturated  with  the  drainage,  which  will  then  ooze  through 
and  appear  upon  the  surface,  or  find  its  way  through  some 
defective  foundation,  and  poison  the  basement  of  an  adjoin- 
ing building.  Constructed  cesspools  formed  with  brickwork 
of  substantial  quality  will  prevent  this  saturation  in  propor- 
tion as  their  walls  arc  carefully  and  imperviously  built.  The 
matters  daily  discharged  into  these  depositories  accumulate, 
and  their  decomposition  is  constantly  proceeding  and 
engendering  gases  of  the  most  noisome  and  pestilential  kind. 
The  open  privy  formed  over  a  pit  of  this  description  affords 
an  outlet  for  the  escape  of  these  gases  which  arc  thus 
regularly  supplied  to  the  building  above  or  adjacent  to  the 
closet.     If  a  trap  or  water  -basin  and  pan  be  applied  to  this 


206  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

privy,  so  that  the  pan  dips  into  the  trap,  the  escape  of 
effluvia  may  be  prevented  so  long  as  the  trap  is  kept  sup- 
plied with  water.  The  supply  of  water  for  this  purpose  will, 
however,  considerably  augment  the  bulk  of  the  sewage,  and 
necessitate  cleansing  much  more  frequently  than  otherwise, 
unless  some  defect  in  the  joints  of  the  work  afford  a  passage 
for  the  liquid  matters  into  the  surrounding  strata,  or  a 
communication  be  afforded  with  a  drain.  In  this  latter  case 
of  combination  of  a  cesspool  with  a  drain,  a  waste-pipe  may 
be  laid  from  the  former  into  the  latter,  so  that  the  contents 
of  the  cesspool  shall  always  be  maintained  at  the  same 
quantity  and  depth;  the  trap  may  then  be  dispensed  with  by 
attaching  a  vertical  pipe  to  the  lower  part  of  the  pan,  so 
that  this  pipe  shall  dip  into  the  sewage,  and  being  thus  con- 
stantly kept  below  its  surface,  no  gas  can  pass  upward 
through  the  pipe.  The  cost  of  the  pan  or  basin  and  pipe 
required  for  this  contrivance,  if  of  stone-ware,  is  small,  and 
its  advantages  in  preventing  the  escape  of  effluvia  are 
obvious. 

The  great  importance,  however,  of  avoiding  all  sources  of 
unwholesome  and  offensive  effluvia,  and  of  preserving  the 
foundations  of  the  buildings  and  the  substrata  of  the  soil  of 
a  town  in  a  dry  and  clean  condition,  creates  a  severe  neces- 
sity for  relinquishing  cesspools,  and  all  receptacles  for  sewage, 
within  or  ^  onnected  with  all  buildings  and  places  whatso- 
ever, except  thr'-^e  to  which  it  is  conducted  for  the  purposes 
of  collection  and  treatment.  The  sole  purpose  of  all  house 
apparatus  of  water  closets,  sinks,  and  drains,  and  of  all  public 
constructions  of  branch  or  tributary  sewers,  and  main  sewers, 
should  be  that  of  affording  a  passage  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
refuse  waters  and,  othe,  matters  produced  in  a  town.  This  con- 
veyance should  be  immediate,  every  particle  committed  to  the  entire 
ramification  of  passages  being  preserved  in  ceaseless  motion  until 
it  arrives  at  the  final  collecting-place.  In  the  country  or  iu 
villages,  these  objections  to  cesspools  have  less  force. 

Discarding  cesspools  upon  these  grounds,  we  are  at  the 


TIIK    AMERICAN    GO!  I  ILDBR.  £07 

same  time  led  to  the  principle  which  should  govern  the 
whole  of  the  details  of  house-draining  apparatus,  which 
should  be  so  arranged  and  combined  as  to  afford  the  fewest 
possible  inlets  for  effluvia  from  the  matters  committed  to  tho 
drains,  and  to  make  the  total  of  the  liquid  refuse  useful  in 
advancing  the  current  within  the  drains.  The  positiou  of 
the  water  closet  being  determined,  it  becomes  desirable  to 
select  the  most  economical  and  efficient  construction  for  it, 
and  for  the  apparatus  connected  with  it. 

The  head  of  the  drain,  and  every  inlet  to  it,  requires  to 
be  fitted  with  a  trap  to  prevent  the  escape  of  effluvia,  and 
this  will  equally  form  an  indispensable  part  of  the  closet 
apparatus.  The  perfect  action  of  the  trap  will  demand  a 
means  of  supplying  water  on  each  use  of  the  closet,  and 
although  all  possible  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the 
house  sewage  water  in  promoting  the  action  of  the  drains,  a 
separate  and  constantly-commanded  source  should  be  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose.  If  the  supply  of  water  to  the  house 
or  building  be  rendered  upon  the  constant-service  system,  a 

re  tap  wilt  be  sufficient  to  afford  the  means  of  discharg- 
ing a  volume  of  water  through  the  trap  of  the  closet.  If 
the  water  be  supplied  upon  the  intermittent  system,  a  cistern 
or  reservoir  of  some  kind,  provided  for  the  house  supply, 
must  be  made  to  communicate  with  the  pan  of  the  closet  by 
a  pipe  with  a  valve  and  apparatus  for  working  it.  For 
general  use,  it  is  especially  desirable  that  economy  and  sim- 
plicity be  combined  in  the  whole  of  the  apparatus  of  the 
closet.  Delicacy  of  adjustment,  requiring  a  complicated 
arrangement  of  parts,  and  a  corresponding  costliness  of  con- 
struction and  repairs,  and  carefulness  in  management,  is 
inadmissible  in  a  design  adapted  for  general  adoption;  and 
combinations  of  levers  and  cranks,  liable  to  accidental 
derangement  and  injury  by  roughness  of  treatment,  are 
therefore  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  position 
of  the  cistern  in  relation  to  the  closet  will  affect,  in  some 
degree,  the  force  and  efficieocy  of  the  volume  of  water  dis- 


208  THE    AMERICAS    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

charged  on  each  occasion ;  and,  if  the  supply  of  water  to  th6 
building  be  constant,  the  service-pipe  should  be  so  conducted 
over  the  closet  that  the  tap  can  be  conveniently  placed  for 
admitting  the  required  quantity  to  the  pan.  If  the  supply 
is  obtained  from  a  house-cistern,  this  must,  of  course,  be 
placed  above  the  pan,  and  at  such  elevation  that  the  water 
may  acquire  a  sufficient  impetus  to  flow  with  rapidity. 

Glazed  stoneware  basins  or  pans,  with  syphon  traps 
combined,  before  referred  to.  are  very  economical  and 
effective  for  general  purposes.  These  are  made  in  several 
forms;  viz:  with  the  pan  and  trap  in  one  piece,  and 
adapted  to  communicate  either  with  a  vertical  or  a  horizon- 
tal drain,  with  a  separate  trap,  having  a  screwed  socket  on 
the  head,  in  which  the  lower  part  of  the  pan  is  received, 
being  formed  with  a  collar  and  screwed  end;  or  as  a  some- 
what more  complicated  arrangement,  consisting  of  a  trap 
with  a  flanged  head,  and  a  separate  dip-pipe,  having  a  pro- 
jecting flange  about  its  mid-length,  and  a  spreading  mouth 
above,  into  which  the  lower  part  of  the  pan  is  fitted  witli 
cement.  The  dip-pipe,  extending  downwards  into  the  trap, 
below  the  level  at  which  its  contents  flow  out,  is  secured  to 
the  head  of  the  trap  by  bolts,  passing  through  the  holes  in 
the  flanges.  The  reasou  for  making  the  pan  separate  from 
the  dip-pipe,  would  appear  to  arise  from  a  difficulty  in 
forming  them  together  with  the  wide  projecting  flange,  so 
as  to  give  sufficient  steadiness  to  the  pan  above. 

Self-acting  valves  or  traps  are  constructed  of  stoneware 
or  metal;  and  the  valves  being  hung  at  a  slight  inclination, 
and  well  filled  with  a  rim  on  the  meeting  surface,  they  remain 
closed  against  any  retrograde  movement  of  the  sewerage  or 
gases,  but  are  readily  opened  by  a  slight  force  of  water  in 
the  outward  direction  of  the  drain.  Sink  traps  are  also 
formed  of  either  substance,  with  perforated  heads  or  covers, 
and  syphon  bends  below,  which,  remaining  filled  with  the 
drainage  water,  prevent  the  escape  of  any  effluvia  from  the 
drain  into  which  they  give  access. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  209 

Although  complexity  of  parts  is  to  be  avoided  in  water- 
closets  intended  for  use,  in  the  greater  number  of  dwellings, 
some  of  the  more  complete  forms  of  apparatus  adapted  for 
self-action,  and  which  necessarily  comprise  considerable 
detail  of  arrangement,  are  preferable  in  superior  bondings, 
in  which  close  economy  of  construction  is  not  a  first  con- 
dition, and  regular  care  and  attention  can  be  secured  for 
the  action  of  the  apparatus  employed.  In  some  of  these 
closets,  the  valve  which  opens  and  closes  the  opening  into 
the  water  pipe,  is  attached  by  a  rod  to  a  lever,  which,  by 
means  of  a  cord  or  chain,  is  connected  with  the  door  of  the 
closet,  so  that  the  opening  of  the  door  opens  the  valve,  and 
thus  discharges  a  quantity  of  water  into  the  pan.  In 
another  form  of  apparatus,  the  pressure  of  the  person  on 
the  seat  produces  a  similar  effect.  One  form  of  this  closet 
is  self-acting  and  doubly  trapped,  and  designed  to  secure  a 
supply  and  force  of  water,  which  shall  always  be  efficient 
and  uniform  without  waste.  It  is  so  contrived  that  no 
soil  can  remain  in  the  basin  after  use,  and  an  ample  supply 
of  water  being  secured  in  the  basin  so  as  to  form  a  "  water- 
lute"  between  that  and  the  syphon-trap,  the  rising  of  smell 
is  effectually  prevented.  The  lower  part  of  the  pan  dips 
into  a  water-pan  or  trap,  which  is  hinged  and  maintained 
in  a  horizontal  position,  by  a  rolling  balauce-weight.  The 
effect  of  pressure  on  the  seat  of  the  closet  is  to  depress  a 
lever  and  open  a  valve  in  the  supply-box  of  the  cistern, 
and  thus  pour  a  volume  of  water  into  the  water-pan  or 
Trap,  sufficient  to  throw  it  open,  and  thus  afford  a  passage 
for  the  soil  into  the  lower  basin,  which  terminates  in  a 
syphon,  and  is  also  trapped  with  water.  When  the  pres- 
sure is  removed  from  the  seat,  the  water-pan  or  upper 
trap  is  immediately  brought  back  to  a  horizontal  position 
by  the  rolling  weight,  and  receives  sufficient  water  before 
the  closing  of  the  valve  to  fill  it,  and  thus  effectually  shut 
all  communication  with  the  lower  basin. 


210  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER      XV 


RURAL     HOMES. 

In  the  choice  of  the  situation  for  a  villa  residence,  two 
classes  of  circumstances  require  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion: the  one  includes  such  as  are  absolute  or  permanent; 
and  the  other  such  as  are  accidental,  or  liable  to  vary  from 
temporary  causes.  The  permanent  considei'ations  include 
climate,  elevation,  surface,  aspect,  soil,  water,  and  the  sea; 
and  the  temporary  or  accidental  circumstances  are  chiefly 
its  locality,  present  state,  prospective  improvement,  and  the 
personal  peculiarities  of  its  intended  possessor. 

Climate  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  of  the  permanent 
circumstances  which  require  to  be  kept  in  view  in  fixing  on 
the  situation  of  a  villa;  because  it  is  less  subject  to  human 
improvement  than  any  other.  In  every  country  of  any 
extent,  the  climate  differs  in  different  parts  of  it,  and  the 
popular  divisions  may  be  stated  to  be  the  cold,  the  warm, 
and  the  moist.  The  last  is  unquestionably  the  least  desir- 
able; because  it  admits  of  least  amendment  by  human 
means.  The  cold  climate,  provided  it  be  dry,  is  often  one 
of  the  healthiest,  and  it  may  always  be  improved  by  plant- 
ing, to  afford  shelter,  and  by  increasing  the  dryness  of  the 
soil  by  draining.  The  warm  climate,  if  it  be  dry,  is 
always  agreeable ;  and  if  the  heat  be  intense  during 
summer,  it  can  be  readily  moderated  by  the  shade  of  trees. 
A  wet  climate  can  scarcely  be  improved;  it  must  necessarily 
be  unhealthy,  compared  with  a  dry  one,  on  account  of  the 
moisture  with  which  the  atmosphere  is  always  charged;  and 
it  precludes  the  exercise  of  the  greatest  of  rural  Improve- 
ments— the  surrounding  the  house  with  plantations. 

Elevation  is  the  next  most  important  circumstance  to 
climate,  although  some  may  assign  the  second  place  to  the 


illK    AJCKBICA3    COTTAGE    BUIU  211 

character  of  the  surface.  The  great  advantage  of  elevation 
is,  that  it  gives  a  command  of  prospect,  without  which,  a 
villa  may  be  beautiful,  picturesque,  or  romantic;  but  it  can 
never  be  dignified  or  grand,  and  scarcely  <  ren  elegaot  or 
graceful.  The  term  elevation  must  always  be  considered  as 
relative;  and  not  to  be  determined  by  measurement.  In  a 
flat  country,  a  knoll  of  one  hundred  feet  in  beigbt,  by 
raising  the  ground  floor  of  the  house  above  the  level  of  the 
tops  of  the  highest  trees  in  the  surrounding  plain,  will 
allow  the  eye  to  range  over  an  extensive  distance ;  to  catch 
a  view,  in  all  probability,  of  some  river  or  stream;  and  in  a 
cultivated  couutry,  to  command  towns,  villages,  farms,  and 
human  dwellings.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  whole  of 
the  surface  is  hilly,  he  that  prefers  elevation,  must  fix  on  a 
hill  somewhat  higher  than  those  by  which  it  is  surrounded, 
so  as,  at  all  events,  to  look  over  some  of  them.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  dignity  of  effect  and  variety  of  prospect,  that 
a  house  in  a  hilly  country  should  enjoy  such  extensive 
views  as  a  house  on  a  plain,  because  in  the  former  case,  the 
variations  of  the  surface  produce  that  expression  in  the 
landscape,  which  in  the  flat  country  is  unknown,  and  but 
faintly  compensated  for  by  the  movement  of  the  clouds,  and 
other  atmospherical  ehang 

In  every  couutry,  however,  there  is  a  limitation  to  the 
height  at  which  it  is  desirable  to  build  dwelling  hou 
and  this  limitation  is  clearly  determined  by  the  growth  of 
the  principal  timber  trees  of  the  country,  indigenous  or 
acclimated,  and  the  ripening  of  the  hardy  fruits.  In  other 
words,  it  is  determined  by  the  capacities  of  the  situation  for 
gardening.  Whenever  a  situation  is  so  high  that  trees  v.  ill 
not  attain  sufficient  dimensions  to  shelter  the  house,  or  fruit 
not  ripen  on  the  garden  walls,  it  ought  to  be  abandoned, 
unless  a  better  one  cannot  be  found. 

The  character  of  the  surface  on  which  to  build  a  villa,  ifl 
the  next  consideration,  and  is  also  one  of  great  importance. 
A   surface  may  be  uniformly  hilly,  or  irregularly  so;  and 


212  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER 

rnay  consist  of  ridges  and  valleys,  or  of  ridges  on  the  sides 
of  hills,  rising  above  each  other  without  valleys.  The 
variety,  in  short,  is  so  great,  that  it  can  scarcely  be  clas- 
sified with  sufficient  distinctness.  It  is  hardly  possible,  how- 
ever, to  conceive  a  hilly  surface  in  which  excellent  situa- 
tions may  not  be  found  for  setting  down  a  villa.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  most  desirable  is  where  a  prominent  knoll  stands 
forward  from  a  lengthened,  irregular  ridge;  and  where  the 
latter  has  a  valley  with  a  river  in  front,  and  higher  hills, 
rising  one  above  another,  behind.  One  of  the  worst  is,  per- 
haps, the  steep,  uniform  side  of  a  high  hill,  closely  sur- 
rounded by  other  hills  equally  high  and  steep.  On  the 
whole,  it  may  be  observed,  that  though  an  irregular  surface 
affords  the  greatest  variety  of  excellent  situations  for  build- 
ing on,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  one  in  which  the  inex- 
perienced are  likely  to  commit  the  greatest  errors;  and 
one,  also,  respecting  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  lay  down 
general  rules  than  any  other. 

Aspect  is  next  in  the  order  of  importance.  There  are 
some  considerations  respecting  aspect  which  apply  to  every 
country;  and  others  to  particular  countries  or  districts  of 
country  only.  Nothing  in  the  architecture  or  appendages 
of  a  house  can  compensate  for  its  being  set  clown  on  the 
north  side  of  a  high  hill  or  ridge,  where  it  is  precluded  from 
partaking  of  the  direct  influence  of  the  sun  during  three  or 
four  months  of  the  year.  In  most  countries,  there  is  some 
point  of  the  compass,  from  which  rain  and  storms  are  more 
frequent  than  any  other;  and  to  set  down  a  house  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  exposed  to  these  tempests  is  evidently 
injudicious.  An  aspect  exposed  to  high  wind  is  less  objec- 
tionable than  one  exposed  to  driving  rains;  since  shelter 
may  be  afforded  from  the  former  by  trees,  but  not  from  the 
latter  by  any  means. 

Soil  and  subsoil  are  very  generally  reckoned  among  the 
primary  considerations  in  the  choice  of  a  site  for  tt  villa  ; 
and  they  are  undoubtedly  the  first,  as  far  as  respects  the 


Til F.    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUI.DER.  213 

value  of  the  estate.  Hut  it  must  be  recollected  that  the 
soil  about  a  house  can  be  totally  changed  by  ait,  while  the 
previously  mentioned  requisites  of  climate,  elevation,  sur- 
face and  aspect,  hardly  admit  even  of  improvement.  Where 
these  circumstances  are  favorable,  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  subsoil,  though  of  secondary  importance,  have  yet  still 
considerable  influence,  both  in  regard  to  health  and  enjoy- 
ment of  the  occupant,  and  the  growth  of  the  plantations. 
A  soil  which  retains  moisture  on  its  surface,  which  is  the 
case  with  most  clays  and  loams  with  retentive  bottoms,  may 
be  considered  as  the  least  healthy;  and  the  one  which 
admits  of  being  walked  on  without  wetting  the  feet,  the 
soonest  after  a  shower  of  rain,  is  the  most  so.  For  the 
present  purpose,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  consider  all  soils  as 
either  clayey,  sandy,  gravelly  or  chalky;  and  all  subsoils  as 
either  based  on  granite,  argillaceous  rock,  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, or  chalk.  Soils  based  on  rocky  Bubsoils,  whatever 
may  be  the  nature  of  the  stone,  may  always  be  considered 
healthier  than  alluvial  soils,  sands  or  gravels.  Soils  laying 
on  calcareous  and  sandstone  rocks,  are  found  to  produce 
healthier  surfaces  than  those  on  chalk  or  slatcstone;  ami 
surfaces,  also,  which  are  much  better  adapted  for  cultivation 
and  the  growth  of  trees.  In  this  respect,  the  subsoil  is 
sometimes  of  more  importance  than  the  soil ;  for  the  latter, 
in  general,  can  be  unproved  by  draining — and  its  suscepti- 
bility of  this  improvement  varies  materially,  according  to 
the  nature  of  its  subsoil.  The  most  difficult  subsoils  to 
underdraw,  are  those  composed  of  moist,  retentive  clays; 
and  when,  to  this  subsoil  is  joined  a  flat  surface,  the  situa- 
tion, as  far  as  respects  the  enjoyment  of  walking  in  the 
open  air,  is  one  of  the  most  hopeless  kind.  A  bad  subsoil 
is  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  thriving  of  timber  trees;  and, 
as  these  constitute  the  finest  ornaments  of  every  country 
seat,  the  importance  of  choosing  a  subsoil  either  naturally 
congenial  to  them,  or  capable  of  being  rendered  so  by  an, 
is  sufficiently  obvious.     In  an  economical  point  of  view,  't 


214  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

is  always  more  desirable  to  choose  a  poor  soil  than  a  rich 
one,  provided  it  be  dry,  for  the  immediate  site  of  a  house. 
Rich  soils  are  better  reserved  for  cultivation;  and  indeed, 
for  the  purpose  ot  lawns  and  kept  grounds,  they  only  serve 
to  increase  the  expense  of  mowing  and  weeding,  by  the 
luxurious  growth  of  herbage.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  the 
most  important  consideration,  in  respect  to  the  soil  of  the 
site  for  a  villa,  is,  that  it  should  be  dry,  and  placed  on  a  subsoil 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  trees. 

Water  is  the  remaining  consideration;  but  it  is  one  of 
very  secondary  importance.  For  all  domestic  purposes,  it 
can  be  procured  almost  everywhere,  by  boring  or  sinking 
wells  ;  and  pieces  of  artificial  water,  where  expense  is  not 
an  object,  may  be  supplied  by  machinery,  from  naturrl 
sources,  at  the  distance  of  miles. 

The  word  villa  was  originally  used  by  the  Romans  tc 
denote  a  farm  house,  with  the  offices  requisite  for  the  accom- 
modation of  a  husbandman.  Afterwards,  when  luxury  in- 
creased, the  term  villa  was  applied  to  the  country  residence 
of  the  opulent  Roman  citizen;  and  it  is  in  the  same  sense 
that  we  now  use  it  to  signify  a  gentleman's  residence  in  the 
country.  As  a  villa  is  to  be  a  place  of  agreeable  retire- 
ment, and  not  one  of  seclusion  from  the  world,  it  should  be 
situated,  if  possible,  in  a  beautiful  country,  within  reach  of 
a  public  road,  and  at  au  easy  distance  from  the  city.  Were 
we  to  select  a  residence  of  this  description,  we  would  choose 
a  country  neither  fiat  nor  mountainous,  varied  with  hill  and 
vale,  and  rather  approaching  to  the  mountainous  than  to 
the  dull  monotony  of  a  level  surface.  TVe  should  prefer  a 
situation  removed  about  a  mile  from  a  great  public  road,  and 
not  exceeding  a  day's  journey  from  the  city.  Here  we 
would  enclose  a  park  of  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and 
fifty  acres,  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  it  by 
lofty  wooded  trees;  on  another  side,  by  a  road  ;  and  else- 
where, by  the  enclosed  country  of  the  district ;  the  surface 
of  the  park  varied,  but  generally  inclining  to  the  south, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BCTLDER.  215 

with  a  rapid  stream  of  water  passing  through  it  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  site  of  the  house.     The  park,  in  form, 
should  be   irregular — neither  round  nor  square— but   the  % 
length  greater  than  the  breadth.    The  country  itself  would, 
in  great  measure,  determine  the  line  of  the  boundary  fence. 
Near  to  the  woody  hill,  on  the  north  side  of  the  park,  on  a 
gentle  eminence,  should  be  the  situation  for  the  house;  and 
we  would  so  place  the  principal  front  as  to  be  seen  from  the 
public  road,  and  to  command  a  beautiful  and  extensive 
prospective  over  a  fertile  country — having,  in  the  middle 
distance,    a   town    or   village    with   its    "  heaven-directing 
spire"  reflected  in  the  broad  reach  of  a  noble  river,  and,  in 
the  extreme  distance,  a  mountainous  country,  or  the  sea — 
the  foreground  of  the  view  to  be  well  broken  up  by  the 
timber  in  the  park.    The  house  should  stand  near  the  north 
boundary,  nearly  but  not  quite  in  the  centre  of  the  length 
of  the  park,  which  we  would  divide  into  three  unequal  por- 
tions.     That  portion  which  would  be   before  the   house, 
should  he  an  open  lawn  of  an  irregular  shape,  crossed  ob- 
liquely by  the  stream,  widened  in  parts,  and  having  the 
banks  fringed  with  underwood  and  a  few  trees — the  lawn 
itself  being  broken  irregularly  with  thorns,  holly,  furze,  fern 
and  trees;  and  varied,  where  the  surface  indicated  a  place 
for  them,  with  groups  and  single  trees.     The  other  two 
portions  we  would  make  unequal — the  smallest  towards  the 
village.     There  should  be  hud  out,  in  imitation  of  forest 
scenery,  with  open  glades  and  thickets,  an  irregular  lawn 
in  each,  with  occasional  openings  to  the   principal  lawn 
before  the  house,  and  to  the  distant  prospect,  or  any  pic- 
turesque object  in  the  surrounding  country — taking  advan- 
tage of  the  inequalities  of  the  surface,   and  following 
closely  as  possible  the  most  beautiful  natural  scenery.     An 
irregular  green,  drive  or  walk  may  be  formed  around  the 
whole.     As  to  trees,  we  would  have  every  kind  of  forest 
tree  that  soil  and  space  would  allow;  but  we  should  prefer 
the  oak,  sycamore  tree  (one  of  the  noblest  trees  when  old) 


216  THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

the  elm  (narrow  leaved),  Spanish  and  horse  chestnut,  the 
maple,  hornbeam,  and  a  few  others.  Of  course  we  should 
add  lower  growths,  such  as  thorn,  holly,  broom,  fern,  and 
*  even  furze.  To  have  a  close,  even  turf,  which  is  one  of  the 
chief  beauties  in  park  scenery,  we  should  keep  it  well 
stocked  with  cattle,  young  horses,  sheep,  and,  if  possible,  a 
few  deer.  Many  parks,  beautiful  in  themselves,  convey  an 
unpleasant  feeling  of  dullness  and  solitude.  Cattle  and 
domestic  animals  always  give  a  certain  air  of  cheerfulness 
to  a  park  scene;  but  still  the  effect  is  often  solitary,  where 
there  is  no  appearance  of  human .  habitation  besides  the 
mansion.  An  ornamental  temple  or  summer  house;  a 
pigeon  house — often  a  very  picturesque  object;  the  keeper's 
lodge,  which  should  be  within  the  park;  and  even  a  few 
gables  of  the  farm  buildings,  seen  at  a  distance — would  all 
contribute  to  give  the  effect  of  cheerfulness  and  a  pleasing 
variety  to  a  richly-wooded  park.  We  should  even  wish  to 
have  a  public  foot-path  across  it  and  within  sight  of  the 
house,  though  at  such  a  distance  as  to  be  no  inconvenience. 
Nothing  is  more  cheerless  than  that  exclusive,  solitary 
grandeur,  so  much  affected  in  the  present  day,  which  for- 
bids the  poor  even  to  set  a  foot  within  the  precincts  of 
greatness.  As  the  most  beautiful  landscape  is  incomplete 
without  figures,  so  the  general  effect  of  a  park  is  always 
lonely,  unless  it  have  a  foot-path  frequented  by  the  pictur- 
esque figures  of  persons  less  favored  than  the  occupant  of 
the  villa,  and  giving  life  and  interest  to  the  scene.  Even 
the  line  of  a  foot-path  is  in  itself  beautiful,  and  breaks  the 
monotony  of  the  green  turf. 

The  next  appendage  to  the  villa  which  requires  atten- 
tion is  the  farm.  Every  person  occupying  a  residence  such 
as  we  have  described,  should  occupy  a  farm  of  sufficient 
extent  to  supply  the  family  with  provisions — such  as  meat, 
bread,  poultry,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  &c.  The  perfection 
of  rural  economy  is  to  purchase  nothing  which  the  estate 
can  be  made  to  produce;  and  the  advantage  of  this  system. 


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under  judicious  management,  is,  that  you  have  an  abund- 
ance of  everything,  and  a  liberal  style  of  house-keeping,  at 
prime  cost.  Thus,  under  the  system  of  management  sup- 
posed, besides  the  ordinary  provisions  supplied  by  the  farm, 
the  estate  might  afford  game  and  wild  fowl.  If  it  be  said 
that  it  would  be,  perhaps,  better  economy  to  buy  than  to 
produce  these  luxuries,  we  answer,  that  in  that  case,  things 
are  uot  well  managed;  and  probably  the  owner  of  the 
place  is  a  thoughtless,  idle  person,  who  does  not  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  his  own  concerns.  But  supposing  it 
to  be  rather  more  expensive  to  produce  than  to  purchase 
these  luxuries;  at  all  events,  when  you  produce  them,  you 
have  then  an  abundance;  the}'  are  always  ready  on  any 
sudden  emergency;  and  you  can  have  them  much  oftener. 

In  "Rural  Home  No.  1,"  the  style  of  architecture  in- 
tended to  be  conveyed  by  the  elevation  is  decidedly  of 
Swiss  origin  and  the  general  form  perfectly  simple — the 
variety  in  the  external  elevation  being  produced  by  the 
projecting  roof.  The  protected  bay  window  also  tends  to 
enliven  the  design,  and  is  always  an  agreeable  addition. 

The  accomodations  are  as  follows:  a,  entrance  to  office; 
b,  office;  c,  clothes-pantry;  d,  main  hall  and  staircase;  e, 
reception-room;  /,  parlor  with  porch;  g,  kitchen;  /;,  cook- 
room;  i,  scullery;  A-,  k,  water  tank  and  sink;  /,  m,  v,  pan- 
tries, closets,  &c;    o,  sitting-room;  p,  q,  water  closets,  &c. 


10 


218 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    ni'n.DF.R. 


These  embellishments  embrace  two  views  of  a  surburban 
residence,  in  the  English  castellated  style,  strikingly  illustra- 
tive of  the  great  beauty  attainable  by  a  happy  mixture  of 
the  different  orders. 


In  connection  with  "Rural  Home  No.  2,"  we  have  the 
following  description:  "  We  bethink  us  of  a  cottage  in  the 
pointed  style,  a  mixture  of  Elizabethan  and  Gothic,  situated 
adjacent  to  the  beautiful  Hudson.  The  house  approxi- 
mated to  the  tasty — but  we  must  term  it  the  mongrel 
order — and  was  all  that  the  most  fastidious  could  require; 
in  fact,  the  acme  of  convenience,  comfort  and  beauty;  but 
the  features  that  comprised  more  particularly  the  beau 
ideal  of  elegance,  was  the  green,  velvety,  undulating  lawn, 
which  occupied  that  portion  of  the  estate  directly  fronting 
the  mansion,  spreading  over  an  area  of  nearly  half-a-mile 
in  extent,  interspersed  with  islands  of  shrubbery,  clumps  of 
evergreens,  tall,  spreading  pendulous  conifers,  umbrageous 
oaks,  rare  trees  from  far  distant  climes,  covered  with  all  the 
luxurious  foliage  and  flowers  of  the  tropics.  Another 
attribute,  and  by  no  means  an  unimportant  one,  was  the 
garden  contiguous,  forming  a  sort  of  back  ground  to  the 
lawn,  in  which  luxuriated  the  more  tangible  and  substantial 
requirements  of  our  corporeal  existence.  There  flourished 
the  luscious  peach,  with  its  downy  cheek,  the  buttery-melting 


Till-:    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER,  210 

pear,  the  red-cheeked  cherry,  the  golden  apricot;  and, 
peeping  out,  nearly  smothered  by  its  own  habiliments,  we 
discovered  that  never-cloying  delicacy,  the  strawberry,  as  if 
endeavoring  to  escape  that  inevitable  destiny  peculiar  to 
strawberries,  of  being  smothered  in  cream.  These  were  but 
a  tithe  of  the  many  provocatives  and  inducements  to  a 
sojourn   in   the   country,  by  which    we   were   surrounded. 

The  beautiful  cottage  "No.  2,"  is  a  design  by  Loudon. 
There  are  many  reasons  which  would  lead  a  person  to 
select  the  mixed  style  for  a  country  residence:  for  instance, 
it  is  more  picturesque  and  ornamental;  it  best  accords  with 
rural  scenery;  and,  as  it  admits  of  great  irregularity  of  form, 
it  affords  space  for  the  various  offices  and  conveniences 
necessary  to  a  country  home.  In  the  accomodations  of  the 
ground  plan,  we  have  an  entrance  porch,  which  is  to  be 
finished  with  a  coned  roof,  and  to  have  Gothic  niches  in 
the  angles  for  statues,  &c.  From  this  we  pass  to  the  hall 
and  staircase  by  a  Venetian  door,  the  upper  part  of  which 
is  glazed  with  stained  glass;  thence  to  a  small  ante-room, 
from  which  there  is  a  door,  to  the  covered  terrace.  From 
the  hall  we  enter  the  dining-room,  containing  two  windows, 
which  are  to  be  brought  down  to  the  floor  and  to  open  like 
French  casements,  so  as  to  admit  of  easy  access  to  the 
terrace  when  the  ante-room  is  occupied.  From  the  hall,  we 
likewise  enter  the  drawing-room,  which  has  a  door  to  the 
ante-room — also  to  the  kitchen.  The  kitchen  door  from 
the  hall  is  finished,  on  the  staircase  Bide,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  doors  of  the  principal  rooms.  This  door  will  only 
occasionally  be  used  as  an  entrance  from  the  porch  to  the 
kitchen,  as  there  is  an  entrance  through  the  yard  and  wash- 
house  for  servants,  etc.  The  above  description  embodies  all 
that  our  plate  recognizes. 

In  the  engravings  representing  "Rural -Hoke No.  3,"  we 
have  a  beautiful  design  by  Mr.  W.  II.  Wii.i.cox,  a  young 
Architect  of  much  promise.  Wo  give  the  artist's  own 
words: — 


220  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

"  The  design  of  this  cottage  is  simple  vet  expressive,  and 
is  of  the  modified  Italian  style;  a  style  which,  with  its 
broad,  overhanging,  bracketed  roofs — sheltering  thoroughly 
the  walls  from  the  weather — and  pleasing  piazzas,  is  well 
adapted  to  our  northern  climate;  aud  while  there  is  nothing 
difficult  or  expensive  in  the  construction  of  the  various 
details,  its  bold,  projecting  roofs  and  bay  windows  give 
character  to  the  exterior.  It  is  intended  to  meet  the 
requirements  and  exigencies  of  a  small  family;  and,  simple 
and  inexpensive  as  it  is,  it  contains  more  of  the  real  essen- 
tials which  a  house  should  possess,  than  many  that  have 
cost  double  the  sum." 

The  plan  of  the  principal  floor  sufficiently  explains  itself, 
showing  an  ample  hall,  with  a  handsome  staircase  (this  hall 
might  be  used  as  a  sitting-room)  abundantly  lighted,  and 
giving  easy  access  to  both  drawing  and  dining-rooms,  and 
by  means  of  a  lower  staircase,  to  kitchen  and  other  base- 
ment apartments.  There  is  also  a  back  door  opening  to  rear 
of  house.  The  drawing-room  is  fifteen  by  twenty  feet,  with 
a  large  semi-octagonal  bay  window,  surrounded  with  a  piazza, 
affording  an  agreeable  accompaniment.  At  the  end,  the 
green-house  or  conservatory  is  entered  by  means  of  a  sliding- 
sash  door;  and  to  add  to  the  effect  produced,  a  fountain  of 
pleasing  proportions  might,  with  great  taste,  be  introduced. 
The  dining-room  is  fifteen  by  twenty  feet,  also  provided 
with  a  bay  window,  and  contains  a  good  closet.  The  bay 
windows  (the  semi-octagonal  being  carried  up  in  the  second 
floor,)  form  very  striking  features  in  this  design,  and  the 
result  is  not  altogether  unpleasant. 

The  basement  contains  a  good-sized  kitchen,  with  its  seve- 
ral adjuncts  of  pantry,  closets,  &c. ;  a  cellar,  laundry,  and 
store  room,  all  sufficiently  lighted — the  kitchen  being  almost 
above  ground,  owing  to  the  surface  on  this  side  falling  off 
sufficiently  for  that  purpose. 

The  second  floor  contains  three  bed-rooms,  a  bath-room, 
water-closet,  and  several  closets — those  indispensable  attach- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  221 

ments  to  every  country-house.  In  the  attic  we  have  two 
rooms,  large  open  attic  closets  and  cistern.  All  the  rooms 
are  quite  large,  adequately  ventilated,  and  showing  a  very 
convenient  and  compact  arrangement;  one  where  comfort 
and  good  effect  are  combined  to  a  very  considerable  degree. 
Xo  flimsy  ornamentation  or  filigree  work  enters  in  the  slight- 
est degree  into  this  composition.  All  is  plain,  simple  and 
expressive,  as  a  cottage  should  be. 

The  great  criterion  of  perfection  in  design,  is,  that  all  the 
parts  about  a  building  should  be  subservient  to  convenience, 
construction,  and  propriety.  Discard  these,  and  we  have  a 
building  at  once  unsatisfactory.  Discordant  emotions  imme- 
diately supplant  those  of  harmony. 

Says  a  celebrated  writer:  "  If  you  cannot  be  consistent 
in  decoration,  at  least  be  consistent  in  the  omission  of  it, 
and  do  not  seem  even  to  aim  at  what  you  can  only  imper- 
fectly accomplish.  If  circumstances  prevent  you  from  pro- 
ducing a  finished  picture,  do  not  work  up  iu  parts,  here  and 
there,  while  others  are  merely  sketched  in.  In  a  word, 
attend  to  keeping?  And  this  is  good,  sound  advice.  Were 
it  more  attended  to,  we  should  not  be  grieved  to  see  such 
enormous  sums  irrecoverably  sunk  to  produce  that  beau- 
ty (?)  which,  although  it  may  seem  to  please  the  vulgar 
taste  for  a  time,  does  not  fail  to  end  in  disappointment. 

Decorations  that  are  added  to  the  essential  portions  of 
cottages,  require  the  same  degree  of  judgment  and  judicious 
application  as  relates  to  other  works  of  art.  They  should 
be  distributed  with  discrimination  and  economy,  and  should 
be  conformable  with  the  character  of  a  country  residence: 
and  all  ornamentation  applicable  to  the  interior,  should 
exhibit  a  rural  air,  expressive  of  the  liberty,  enjoyment  and 
gayety,  that  reign  supreme  in  the  country. 

As  we  too  often  see  them,  cottages  are  made  to  put  on 
affected  airs,  and  ape  palaces  and  castles.  Great  care  is 
taken  that  the  exterior  shall  "  show  to  advantage,"  and 
consequently  we  see  filagree  work  and  gew-gaws  nailed  on 


222  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

in  places  where  neatness  and  modesty  shonld  appear ;  and 
what  with  pinnacles,  turrets,  battlements,  and  other  objects, 
which  a  nomenclator  would  find  it  difficult  to  assign  any 
particular  title,  we  are  induced  to  exclaim  with  Petruchio — • 

"What !  up  and.  down,  carv'd  like  an  apple  tart? 
Here's  snip,  and  nip,  and  cut,  and  slish,  and  slash, 
Like  to  a  censer  in  a  barber's  shop  : 
Why  !  what,  o'devil's  name,  tailor,  call'st  thou  this  1" 

Perhaps  nothing  is  more  indicative  of  the  character  of  its 
occupants  than  the  external  appearance  of  a  country  dwell- 
ing; a  house  standing  in  an  exposed  situation,  costly  though 
it  may  be,  has  a  very  repulsive  and  uninviting  appearance. 
No  grateful  shelter  of  umbrageous  trees  and  shrubs  offers  to 
protect  us  from  the  scorching  rays  of  a  summer  sun;  and  it 
is  but  natural  to  portend  the  want  of  taste,  as  well  as  intel- 
ligence, in  those  who  occupy  it.  But  far  different  is  the 
result  of  the  neat  cottage,  surrounded  with  shady  shrubs  and 
trees;  and  though  the  cottage  be  ever  so  humble  in  its  pre- 
tensions, it  has  a  clean,  tidy  appearance;  and,  with  its 
grounds  richly  cultivated,  its  flowers 

"All  woven  in  gorgeous  tissues, 
Flaunting  gayly  in  the  golden  light," 

shrubs  and  trees  pleasantly  disposed,  and  a  patch  of  well- 
kept  lawn,  are  indicative  of  attention  paid  to  other  than 
"mere  animal  enjoyments."  Nor  is  this  privilege  denied  to 
any  possessor  of  a  country  residence,  for  the  most  limited 
spot  of  ground  may  be  adorned  with  much  beauty  and  effect. 
It  may  be  laid  out  with  winding  or  curved  paths,  neatly 
bordered  with  various  flowers,  blending  their  gaudy  colors 
harmoniously  together;  planted  with  a  goodly  assortment 
of  shade  trees  and  ornamental  shrubs,  of  which  there  can  be 
ever  had  a  bountiful  variety;  a  trellis  here,  with  climbing 
plants ;  a  bower  there,  with  its  cool,  refreshing  shade ;  a  few 
vases,  disposed  with  care  over  the  lawn,  receptacles  for  flow- 
ering plants.  These,  and  more  (according  as  the  place  is 
larger  or  smaller)  are  susceptible  of  giving  an  air  of  refine- 


THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDEK. 

mcnt,  otherwise  quite  unattainable,  and  at  a  very  slight 
expense.  Were  our  country  residences  more  generally  deck- 
ed with  simplicity  and  taste,  we  imagine  that  the  number 
of  our  young  meu  who  wander  from  the  patrimonial  estate, 
and  precipitate  themselves  into  the  dissipated  and  vitiated 
follies  of  a  city  life,  would  be  very  materially  lessened. 

A  great  desideratum  for  the  country  is  the  wire  fence 
(such  as  manufactured  by  Wickersham,  X.  Y.)  Inconspicu- 
ous, aud  combining  in  an  eminent  degree  lightness  and 
cheapness,  it  offers  a  very  striking  contrast  to  the  miserable, 
rickety,  zig-zag,  post-and-rail  fence  often  met  with  in  the 
country.  It  is  more  durable,  and  far  more  economical  than 
any  other  species  of  fence,  since  by  this  mode  no  ground  is 
lost  or  made  unproductive,  and  it  combines  "  taste  and  orna- 
ment with  the  utmost  permanence  and  security."  We  hope 
to  see  this  style  of  country  fencing  in  more  general  use 

than  at  present. 

WM.  H.  WILLCOX,  Architect, 

381   Broadicay,  X.    Y. 

The  design  "Rural  Home  Xo.  4,"  is  by  Mr.  Leopold 
Eidlitz,  a  Xew  York  Architect  of  established  reputation. 
It  is  in  the  Swiss  style,  and  is  intended  to  stand  on  a  hill- 
side, opening  on  a  lawn  toward  the  north.  The  house  pos- 
sesses great  external  beauty  and  harmony  and  is  internally 
convenient.  The  view  toward  the  north  would,  if  the 
house  were  on  an  elevation,  be  quite  pleasant;  while  to 
travelers  on  the  road  toward  the  south,  who  see  the 
house  as  shown  in  the  "  South  Elevation,"  (see  engrav- 
ing) the  snug,  comfortable  and  pleasant  appearance,  is  quite 
striking.  The  "  Drawing  Room  "  is  in  the  south-western 
portion  of  the  house,  which,  by  general  consent,  is  the 
pleasantest  part  of  the  building.  All  the  conveniences  of  a 
house  of  the  first  class  are  designed  for  the  cottage — such  as 
baths,  water,  &c,  &c. 

Chancellor  Livixgstok  used  to  prefer  a  house  or  country 
residence  situated  on  ground  sloping  from  the  north  to  the 


224  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

south.  On  the  most  northern  portion  of  the  ground  he 
would  plant  a  hedge  or  grove  of  trees,  to  shelter  the  house 
from  the  northern  winds  or  storms.  Trees  should  not  be 
planted  close  to  the  house,  as  they  are  supposed  to  harbor 
dampness,  and  consequently  make  the  residence  unhealthy. 
It  is  usual  to  place  trees  at  least  twice  as  far  from  the 
house,  as  the  trees  are  high ;  that  is,  a  tree  thirty  feet  high 
should  be  at  least  sixty  feet  from  the  house,  and  a  tree 
forty-five  feet  high  should  be  at  least  ninety  feet  distant 
from  the  house.  The  Chancellor  would  plant  the  trees  of 
the  largest  growth  on  the  extreme  north,  and  come  down 
gradually  to  the  smallest ;  then  from  the  largest  shrubs  down 
to  the  smallest;  then  from  the  largest  plants  down  to  the 
strawberry,  which  would  be  on  the  extreme  south.  The 
house  should  be  about  two-thirds  the  distance  from  the 
strawberry  to  the  northern  boundary. 

The  pathways,  walks,  and  fences  around  a  cottage  should 
always  be  curved,  rather  than  straight,  Hogarth  found 
the  line  of  beauty  in  the  letter  S — in  a  curve.  This  branch 
of  the  subject,  however,  is  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Design  in  Architecture"  in  the  first  book  of  this  series, 
"  History  and  Rudiments  of  Architecture." 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  225 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


PAINT     AND     COLOR. 

In  all  decisions  respecting  the  relative  beauty  of  objects 
or  of  qualities,  we  find  no  source  of  difference  and  misunder- 
standing so  fertile  as  the  confusion  between  occular  and 
mental  pleasure — that  which  addresses  itself  to  the  external 
sense  alone,  or  through  it  to  the  mind  alone.  Continual 
mistakes,  arising  from  this  confusion,  run  through  every- 
thing we  see  or  hear  on  the  subject,  from  the  simple  "  I 
like  it,"  or  "  I  do  not  like  it,"  without  giving  a  reason,  up 
to  the  most  subtle  and  elaborate  theories  of  beauty  and 
taste,  as  those  of  Hogarth,  Burke,  Price,  and  Alison. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to 
define  the  exact  boundary  between  the  provinces  of  the 
mind  and  of  the  eye;  or,  in  an  object  that  pleases  both,  to 
distinguish  which  of  its  qualities  or  excellencies  address 
themselves  to  each  exclusively  of  the  other,  and  which  (if 
any)  are  calculated  to  affqrd  pleasure  both  ways:  yet 
nothing  is  more  necessary  than  this,  in  the  outset  of  any 
rational  inquiry  into  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  an  alleged 
rule  or  principle,  in  architecture  or  any  other  fine  art. 

So  great  has  been  the  difference  of  opinion  on  this  point 
that  some  authors  (Milizia,  for  instance)  have  denied  the 
existence  of  ocular  forms  of  beauty,  i.  e.,  they  deny  that  any 
form  is  more  pleasing  than  another  to  the  mere  sense  ol 
vision,  apart  from  mental  inferences  or  associations;  which 
has  led,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  question,  whether  this 
sense  differs  from  all  others,  in  having  no  preference  of  one 
sensation  to  another-  -no  likes  or  dislikes. 

Such  an"  anomalous  deviation  from  the  analogy  that 
obtains  between  all  the  other  senses  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  admitted;  and  accordingly,  we  shall  find  that  the  eye  has 

10* 


226  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

its  choice  and  preference  of  one  simple  sensation  to  another, 
not  perhaps  with  regard  to  forms,  (which  cannot  be  regard- 
ed as  simple  sensations,  or  even  sensations  at  all,)  but  cer- 
tainly with  regard   to  colors,  which  are   the  only   occular 
qualities  coming  under  this  denomination.      Children  and 
savages,  who,  in  the  choice  of  colors,  consult  nothing  beyond 
the  immediate  gratification  of  the  eye,  invariably  prefer  a 
certain  class  of  colors — those  termed  crude  or  positive — to 
another  class— those  which  we  term  dull  colors  or  tones. 
Now,  that  the  preference  shown  to  the  former  is  purely  a 
matter  of  sensation,  with  which  the  mind  has  nothing  to  do, 
will  be  plain  from  the  fact  that  the  mind  has,  in  these  and 
most  other  cases,  no  knowledge  whatever  of  what  consti- 
tutes  the   difference   between   these  sensations:  it   knows 
nothing  of  any  physical  resemblance  that  may  exist  between 
the  colors  included  in  each  of  these  classes,  which  does  not 
apply  to  the  other  class;  nor  have  we  any  name  to  distin- 
guish these  two  qualities,  otherwise  than  by  their  pleasing 
or  displeasing  effects.     Thus  we  apply  the  term  bright  to 
the  more  pleasing  class;  but  every  one  perceives  that  this  is 
only  done  by  a  metaphor,  (because  light  is  more  pleasing 
than  darkness,)  for  the  pure  or  positive  colors  are  not  neces- 
sarily more  luminous  than  the  others,  but  only  more  eye- 
pleasing.     The  purer  of  two  colors  may  be,  and  often  is  the 
darker;    and   then,  in   comparing   them,  we   discover   the 
insufficiency  of  the  word  bright  to  express  what  we  mean, 
and  are  therefore  obliged  to  replace  it  by  the  word  rich — 
another  metaphor,  observe,  still  implying  nothing  more  than 
fine   or   pleasing.      Thus   the   preference   of  one  color  to 
another,  abstractedly,  without  reference  to  fitness  or  associ- 
ation, must  be  regarded  as  merely  and  wholly  a  sensuous 
preference,  like  that  of  one  simple  sound,  or  one  flavor  to 
another.     The  analogy,  therefore,  between  the  eye  and  the 
other  organs  of  sense,  is  complete  and  unbroken,  without 
any  necessity  for  supposing  it  to  have  a  preference  of  one 
form  to  another. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BtflLDSR.  221 

The  discovery,  indeed,  of  a  physical  reason  for  those  pre- 
ferences, in  the  case  of  two  of  the  senses  (Bight  and  hearing) 
— the  discovery  why  red  is  more  pleasing  than  brown,  or 
blue  than  gray,  or  the  sound  of  a  string  than  that  of  a  stick 
— that  is,  the  discovery  of  some  describable  quality  common 
to  the  red  and  blue,  and  other  colors  of  the  same  class,  and 
to  the  string  and  other  musical  sounds,  which  quality  is  not 
possessed  by  the  dull  colors  and  the  uumusical  noises — 
must  be  considered  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  inductive 
science.  It  is  now  perfectly  known  in  what  this  difference 
consists;  and,  moreover,  that  it  is  the  same  in  both  senses. 
For,  as  both  light  and  sound  affect  their  respective  organs 
by  an  inconceivably  rapid  repetition  of  vibrations  or  pulsa- 
tions, so,  in  both  cases,  it  is  found  that  the  pleasurableness 
of  the  sensation,  whether  of  sound  or  of  color,  increases  just 
in  proportion  as  these  vibrations  are  more  regular,  iso- 
chronous, or  equal-timed;  that,  in  the  colors  of  the  spec- 
trum, or  the  sounds  of  a  glass  bell,  they  are  perfectly  so; 
and  that  the  duller  or  more  dead  the  color  or  sound  becomes, 
the  more  irregular  are  these  vibrations,  till,  when  they  are 
totally  irregular,  we  perceive  only  a  sensation,  not  a  plea- 
surable one,  a  wooden  sound  of  no  definite  note,  or  a 
neutral  tint  of  no  definite  color. 

An  eminent  artist  has  observed  respecting  tone,  "  a  pro- 
perty or  quality  of  color,  the  opposite  of  gaudiness  or  harsh- 
ness," that  "  it  bears  that  relation  to  colors  in  general,  that 
the  quality  of  a  musical  note  does  to  that  of  an  unmusical 
sound  or  mere  noise.  In  music  this  is  known  to  depend 
upon  the  vibrations  of  the  air  being  isochronous,  or  at 
equal  intervals.  Should  it  be  discovered  that  colors  are 
also  produced  by  vibrations,  tone,  in  its  present  application, 
may  prove  to  arise  from  similiar  regularity."  But  physical 
optics  exactly  contradict  this  ingenious  surmise,  by  disclos- 
ing that  crude  or  gaudy  colors  correspond  to  musical  sounds, 
and  that  it  is  precisely  the  sober  "tones"  of  color  that  are 
non-isochronou>,    like  noises.      The   error   evidently  arose 


228  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

from  the  artist,  absorbed  in  the  higher  excellencies  of  hia 
art,  mistaking  a  mental  for  an  occular  beauty.  If  he  had 
observed  the  conduct  of  children,  who  look  only  for  the 
latter,  he  would  have  perceived  that  it  is  the  crude  positive 
colors  which  are  the  sweets  of  the  eye,  and  that  the  tones 
are  its  bitters,  or  at  least,  its  insipid,  ordinary  food.  In  fact, 
that  whenever  the  latter  are  preferred  to  the  former  in  a 
picture,  it  is  from  a  mental,  not  an  occular  preference ;  and 
a  sensuous  beauty  is  sacrificed,  as  it  should  be,  to  an  intel- 
lectual one. 

But  for  how  many  ages  were  these  differences  perfectly 
well  seen  and  heard,  and  these  preferences  shown — by  how 
many  millions  is  this  still  done,  without  a  possibility  of 
knowintr  in  what  the  differences  consist  ?  We  hence  learn 
that  the  mind  can  have  no  share  in  appreciating  this  lowest 
species  of  beauty. 

So,  also,  the  harmony  of  colors — that  is,  the  preference 
given  to  a  juxtaposition  of  two  certain  colors  rather  than  to 
that  of  other  two,  though  equally  bright  or  pleasing  when 
seen  separately,  must  be  wholly  an  occular  beauty;  for  the 
mind  cannot  (by  the  direct  evidence  of  the  unaided  sense) 
discover  any  relation  between  red  and  green,  for  instance, 
which  does  not  exist  between  the  blue  and  green.  We  can 
only  say  that  the  former  harmonize  together,  and  the  latter 
do  not.  As  the  mind  knows,  in  general,  nothing  at  all 
about  this  harmony,  the  mind  can  have  nothing  to  do  with 
an  appreciation  of  it.  It  required  the  utmost  refinement  of 
modern  science  to  discover  that  this  case  is  analogous  to  that 
of  two  harmonizing  sounds ;  and  even  in  this  latter  instance, 
though  most  persons  would  know  whether  the  two  notes 
were  in  harmony  or  not,  the  finest  musical  ear  in  the  world 
would  never  discover,  from  the  sound  alone,  funless  he  has 
studied  acoustics  or  seen  the  strings,)  that  the  lengths  or 
tensions  of  these  strings  bore  certain  ratios  to  each  other, 
and  that  when  the  notes  were  discordant,  these  ratios  were 
incommensurable.      It  was   very   right   for    the    contem- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BIII.DER.  22C 

poraries  of  Aristotle,  or  Yitruvius,  to  reason  from  this  to 
all    manner  of  hidden  sympathies  between  the  mind  and 
mathematical  ratios — which  it  perceived  without  being  able 
to  state — which  it  discovered  and  yet  did  not  discover.   This 
Was  the  best  way  of  accounting  for  the  fact  then,  the  highest 
generalisation  that  the  science  of  those  times  rendered  pos- 
sible.    It  would  be  a  disgrace  to  science  at  present,  because 
we  have  a  plain  physical  reason  which  not  only  generalizes 
all  the  phenomena  of  harmony  and  discord,  but  brings  them 
under  the  very  same  principle  that  distinguishes  between 
notes  and  noises.     For  it  is  evident  that  two  sets  of  vibra- 
tions which  are  each  regular  in  itself,  and  which  bear  a 
simple   ratio   to   each   other,  by  uniting   together  form  a 
vibration  which  is  also  regular,  and  therefore  musical;  but 
two  vibrations  which,  however  regular,  each  may  be  alone, 
bear  no  commensurable  ratio  to  each  other,  will,  by  their 
union,   produce  a  totally  irregular  vibration,  i.  e.,  a  noise. 
AVe  may  illustrate  this  principle  by  sujiposing  two  clocks 
placed  side  by  side,  one  beating  every  second,  and  the  other 
twice  in  a  secoud;  the  combination  of  the  two  beats  will 
produce  a  regular  repeated  sound.     Suppose  the  beating  of 
both  be  100  or  1000  times  more  rapid,  and  you  have  the 
case  of  two  notes  sounded  together,  having  the  interval  of 
an  octave.     If  one  clock  beat  seconds,  and  the  other  thrice 
in   two   seconds,  or   five   times  in  four  seconds,  a  regular 
sound  would   also   in   both  cases   result;  and    this  would 
resemble  the  case  of  two  notes  differing  from  each  other  by 
a  musical  fifth  in  the  former  case,  or  a  third  in  the  latter. 
]>ut  let  one  clock  beat  as  before  3600  times  an  hour,  and 
the  other  6211  times,  as  these  numbers  have  no  common 
measure,  a  whole  hour  must  elapse,  before  the  beat  will 
recur  in  the  same  order  as  at  first;  so  that  in  listening  to 
this  sound,  we  shall  perceive  no  regularity  whatever.     This 
is  the  case  with  the  vibrations  of  two  discordant   notes. 
They  may  also  be  incommensurable,  so  as  never  to  coincide 
in  any  length  of  time.     Thus,  suppose  a  grating  of  bars  one 


230  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

inch  apart  (including  their  breadth,)  to  be  laid  on  one  an 
other,  of  which  the  bars  are  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart, 
or  any  other  distance,  exactly  expressed  in  parts  of  an  inch, 
the  two  will  combine  to  form  a  regularly  striped  pattern, 
which  will  be  larger  or  broader,  the  more  complex  the  ratio 
between  the  two  gratings  may  be ;  the  breadth  of  one 
alternation  of  the  pattern  being  the  smallest  space  that 
contains  an  exact  number  of  each  set  of  bars.  But  let  the 
intervals  in  one  of  the  gratings  be  an  English  inch,  and  in 
the  other  a  French  centimetre;  or  let  one  be  an  inch  and 
the  other  the  diagonal  of  a  square  inch  ;  as  they  are  incom- 
mensurable, no  regular  alternation  can  occur,  however  far 
the  gratings  may  be  extended.  This  is  in  general  the  case 
with  two  discordant  vibrations. 

When  the  nerve  has  been  affected  with  a  particular  vibra- 
tion, it  will  necessarily  accomodate  itself  with  more  ease  to 
a  new  vibration,  the  more  simple  the  ratio  that  this  vibra- 
tion bears  to  the  former;  so  that  those  which  bear  the 
simplest  ratios  to  each  other,  are  most  in  harmony  with 
each  other.  Such  is  the  plain  physical  harmony,  which 
shows  it  to  be  altogether  a  matter  of  the  ear,  and  not  of 
the  hand. 

Harmony  in  color  is  perfectly  identical  with  this,  only  on 
ficcount  of  the  comparatively  limited  range  of  the  eye's  sensi- 
bility to  vibration,  as  compared  with  the  ear.  Sir  John  Her- 
schell  considers  the  whole  compass  of  the  scale  of  visible 
colors  to  correspond  only  to  the  interval  called  in  music 
minor-sixth.  It  happens  that  in  this  case  there  is  only  one  har- 
monic ratio;  that  is  to  say,  that,  though  a  given  note  in  music 
may  harmonize  with  many  others,  as  the  third,  fifth,  octave, 
twelfth,  &c,  above  it,  and  one  below  it,  a  given  color  in  the 
spectrum  can  only  have  one  harmonic,  viz.,  that  vibration 
which  in  music  would  be  called  the  third, either  above  it  (never 
both,  because  the  scale  is  not  long  enough  to  include  them) ; 
so  that,  between  the  vibrations  of  two  colors  that  harmon- 
ize, there  is  always  the  same  ratio  as  between  the  two  near- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  231 

est  musical  vibrations  that  harmonize,  viz.,  the  ratio  of  four 
to  five. 

As  fewseem  aware  of  the  universal  application  of  this 
rule  to  harmony  in  colors,  we  insert  the  following  table,  in 
which  the  first  column  contains  the  names  of  the  simple 
colors;  the  second  colnmu  their  number  of  undulations  in 
an  inch,  according  to  the  measurements  of  Sir  John  Her- 
schell.  This  number  being  increased  or  diminished  in  the 
ratio  of  four  to  five,  or  five  to  four,  gives  that  in  the  third 
column,  corresponding  (according  to  the  same  authority,) 
to  the  color  named  in  the  last  column,  which  is,  in  every 
case,  the  harmonic  or  contrast  to  that  in  the  first : 

Uudulationa 

per  inch. 

Extreme  red  (crimson),  37,640X1-25=47,050  .  .  Green. 

Bed 39.180X1.25=48,975  .  .  Bluish-green. 

Roluish-orange, 40,720X1.25=50,900  .  .  Greenish-blue. 

Orange,     41,610x1.25=52,012  .  .  Blue. 

Orange-yellow, 42,510X1.25=53,137  .  .  Indigo  blue. 

Yellow 44,000X1.25=55.000  .  .  Purplish-indigo. 

Yellowish-green,   ....  45,600x1-25=57,000  .  .  Violet. 

Green, 47,4G0-f-1.25=37,968  .  .  Crimson. 

Greenish-blue,    49,320-H.25=39,456  .  .  Red. 

Blue, 51,110-=-1.25=40,888  .  .  Orange-red. 

Indigo  blue, 52,910-*-1.25=42,328  .  .  Yellowish-orange. 

Indigo, 54,070-^1.25=43,256  .  .  Orange-yellow. 

Purplish-indigo,    ....  52,240-*- 1.25=44,192  .  .  Yellow. 

Violet, 57,490-»-1.25=45,992  .  .  Yellowish-green. 

Extreme  (reddish-violet)  59,750-t- 1.25=47,800  .  .  Green. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  each  color  in  the  first  or 
last  column  is  harmonic,  not  only  to  the  one  placed  in  a 
line  with  it,  but  to  all  modifications  thereof  ;  that  is, 

1.  To  all  its  tints,  from  the  purest  or  most  intense  color 
up  to  white. 

2.  To  all  its  shades,  from  the  same  pure  color  down  to 
black. 

3.  To   all   its  shaded   tints    or   diluted  shades,  formed  in 


232  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

painting,  by  mixing  it  with  both  black  and  white  in  any 
proportion;  or,  in  other  words,  with  any  neutral  tint  in  any 
proportion. 

4.  By  mixing  it  with  any  exact  harmonic  color  in  any 
proportion — for  every  color  neutralizes  an  equivalent  portion 
of  its  opposite  color,  so  that  painters  who  wish  to  avoid  black- 
ness often  paint  the  shadows  on  a  colored  object,  not  with 
neutral  tint,  but  with  the  color  opposite  to  that  of  the  object; 
for,  by  this  means,  its  color  may  be  lowered  most  with  the 
least  diminution  of  luminosity. 

No  one  could  discover  the  harmony  of  4ths  and  5ths 
from  the  inspection  of  a  red  and  a  green,  or  any  other  two 
harmonic  colors;  so  that  this,  no  less  than  abstract  beauty 
of  single  colors,  is  purely  an  occular  beauty,  arising  from 
the  retina  of  the  eye,  when  impressed  with  a  certain  vibra- 
tion, accommodating  itself  most  easily  to  a  new  vibration 
that  bears  a  simple  ratio  to  a  former  one.  Colors  that 
harmonize  are  commonly  said  to  form  contrasts ;  at  least, 
such  is  the  case  if  they  be  both  of  equal  purity  and  intensity, 
which,  however,  is  not  necessary  to  harmony.  A  nice  dis- 
tinction has  been  attempted  to  be  drawn  between  simulta- 
neous and  successive  contrasts;  but  the  fact  is,  they  are 
always  successive;  for  when  two  colors  are  placed  in  juxta- 
position, the  continual  motion  of  the  eye-balls  bring  the 
image  of  each,  alternately,  over  the  same  portion  of  the 
retina;  and  each  point  of  that  delicate  nerve  is  successively 
exposed,  in  an  inconceivably  short  time,  to  each  and  all  of  the 
colors  that  may  happen  to  be  before  us. 

On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  the  laws  of  coloring, 
as  a  gratification  of  the  eye  only,  are  simply  these  : 

1.  That  the  more  isochronous  (or  equal-timed)  the  vibra- 
tions of  any  given  color  may  be,  the  more  pleasing  will  it  be 
in  itself,  apart  from  fitness  or  association  with  others. 

2.  That  these  isochronous  (or  equal-timed)  colors,  how- 
ever, have  a  more  exciting  effect  on  the  retina  than  those 
which  are  of  the  same  brightness  but  not  equal-timed:  tho 


TJ1K    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  238 

repose  a  (lorded  by  a  change  from  the  former  to  the  latter  is 
also  grateful;  so  that  wo  should  follow  the  example  of 
nature's  works,  throughout  which  the  sober,  mixed,  or  sub- 
dued tones,  are  the  rule,  and  the  pure  or  isochronous  colors 
the  exception;  for  it  is  a  less  evil  to  be  unable  to  find  excite- 
ment, than  to  be  unable  to  find  repose. 

3.  That  variety  of  coloring  is  abstractly,  (without  refer- 
ence to  fitness,  &c.,)  more  pleasing  than  monotony — 
especially  when  the  colors  that  adjoin  each  other  have  their 
vibrations  in  the  harmonic  ratio  of  four  to  five ;  that  is,  when 
they  form  contrasts,  and  still  more  when  they  are  varied  in 
intensity  or  brilliancy,  or  both,  as  well  as  contrasted  in 
quality. 

4.  That,  as  variety  is  an  exciting  quality,  owing  to  the 
rapid  changes  which  each  point  of  the  retina  undergoes,  the 
change  from  variety  to  sameness  of  color  is  required  for 
repose;  so  that  here,  again,  we  should  imitate  nature,  in 
which  sameness  of  coloring  is  the  rule,  and  variety  the 
exception ;  the  former  being  found  in  all  large  and  grand 
objects,  and  broad  surfaces,  and  the  latter  only  in  small  and 
scattered  organisms. 

This  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  in  architecture,  or  at 
least  in  its  grander  forms,  varied  coloring  should  have  as 
little  place  as  it  has  in  the  elephant,  the  oak,  or  the  moun- 
tain-chain. In  this  connection  we  would  state  our  opinion 
that  the  new  architectural  sect  of  poly-chromists  who  have 
placed  themselves  in  opposition  to  the  general  opinion  of 
civilized  man  for  the  last  two  centuries  are  wrong. 

A  proper  understanding  of  the  nature  of  physical  har- 
mony, whether  in  sound  or  colors,  will  guard  the  reader 
against  the  immense  abuse  which  mystics  make  of  this  com- 
mon sense  principle,  in  the  theories  of  what  is  called  propor- 
tion in  architecture — a  sort  of  beauty-made-easy,  an  artistic 
philosopher's  stone,  by  which  baser  productions  arc  to  be 
transmuted  into  works  of  art ;  expressions  of  thought,  with- 
out the  trouble  of  thinking,  only  by  applying  arithmetical 


234  THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

rules.  It  will  be  seeu  that,  while  the  analogy  between 
sounds  and  colors  is  real  as  far  as  it  goes,  there  is  no  sort 
of  foundation  for  the  extension  of  these  ratios  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  visible  objects,  except  the  active  imaginations  of 
ancient  ill-informed  philosophers,  who  in  these  speculations 
did  their  best,  while  their  modern  followers  do  their  worst. 
Why  should  the  height  and  breadth  of  a  window  bear  a 
certain  simple  ratio  to  each  other  ?  Because,  says  Vitru- 
vius,  two  strings  of  the  same  thickness  and  tension,  having 
their  lengths  in  the  same  ratio,  will  yield  concordant  notes. 
The  logic  is  truly  admirable;  but  it  was  a  very  fair  deduc- 
tion for  the  science  of  that  day,  and  only  unfit  for  the 
present,  because  we  happen  to  know  why  the  notes  harmo- 
nize, and  it  is  for  a  reason  which  has  nothing  at  all  analogous 
to  it  in  the  case  of  the  window.  If  there  be  any  architec- 
tural analogy,  it  is  in  the  case  of  equally-spaced  rows  of 
objects,  placed  one  tier  over  another,  as  the  ornamental 
mouldings  of  a  cornice,  which  in  many  ancient  buildings  are 
not  (as  is  now  the  universal  practice)  regulated  so  as  to 
harmonize,  i.  e.,  so  as  to  have  an  exact  whole  number  of 
dentals  in  another  moulding,  or  of  eggs  and  anchors  in 
another. 

It  is  not  within  our  present  purpose  to  give  a  review  of 
the  painter's  art:  that  subject  cannot  be  properly  treated 
alone  in  a  work  of  less  dimensions  than  this. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  235 


CHAPTER     XVII. 


SUBURBAN    RESIDENCES. 

The  Gothic  Suburban  Cottage  (see  Frontispiece)  is  the 
residence  of  C.  Prescott,  Esq.,  Troy,  New  York.  The 
original  plans  were  designed  bj  his  intelligent  lady,  Mrs. 
Prescott,  who,  not  being  an  Architect,  called  to  her  aid 
H.  Thayer,  the  Architect  by  whose  united  labors  the  designs 
and  plans  were  completed.  The  material  of  which  the 
house  is  built  is  brick.  The  foundation  is  stone — two  feet 
thick.  The  first  story  walls  are  sixteen  inches  thick  ;  the 
other  walls  are  one  foot  thick.  The  inner  walls  stand  four 
inches  from  the  brick,  and  arc  hard  finished.  The  outer 
walls  may  be  either  paiuted  in  imitation  of  stone,  or  plas- 
tered with  stucco  or  concrete.  The  building  is  warmed  by  a 
furnace,  or  heater,  being  placed  in  the  basement.  The 
water  which  collects  on  the  roof  is  taken  to  a  cistern  in  a 
cellar,  and  close  to  the  house  is  a  spring  of  clear,  pure 
water.  The  situation  of  this  house  makes  it  singularly  beau- 
tiful, and  desirable;  it  stands  on  a  hill,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  faces,  from  the  west,  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  takes  in  a  fine  view  of  it  for  several  miles, 
north  and  south.  At  the  south  is  the  city  of  Albany  and  a 
beautiful  Rural  Cemetery;  immediately  in  front  is  the  city 
of  Troy,  West  Troy  and  the  United  States  Arsenal;  to  the 
northerly  is  Mount  Olympus,  the  Troy  Cemetery,  Lansing- 
Imrgh,  the  State  Dam,  Cohocs,  and  Waterford.  In  connec- 
tion with  these  are  the  canals  and  railroads,  with  their  ever- 
busy  vehicles.  The  owner  of  the  house  has  a  large  stream 
of  water,  some  four  hundred  feet  east  of  the  house,  from 
which  he  intends  to  bring  the  water  in  pipes  to  his  residence 


236 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    HOLDER. 


237 


238  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAUE    BUILDER. 

The  head  of  the  water  being  forty  feet  higher   than  the 
foundation  of  the  house,  all  the  rooms  will  be  supplied  as 
well  as  the  fountains,  which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  front 
and  on  the  sides  of  the  house.     Between,  the  building  and 
the  head  of  the  water-course  there  is  a  large  ravine,  180  feet 
long,  100  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  deep,  of  which  the  owner 
intends  to  make  a  fish-pond — it  now  being  well  known  that 
fish  are  as  easy  of  cultivation  by  artificial  means  as  straw- 
berries, and  that  they  can  be  made  perfectly  tame,  being 
quickly  called  by  the  human  voice  or  the  sound  of  a  bell. 
The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  a  fish-pond,  filled  in  abun- 
dance with  the  rarest  fish,  will  be  as  frequent  an  adjunct  to 
a  Yilla  or  Suburban  Residence  as  sheep  on  the  lawn,  a 
bird  in  the  cage,  or  a  rabbit  in  the  yard.     The  ravine  is  sur- 
rouuded  with  trees,  and  wild  vines  run  riot  up  and  down 
and  over  the  rocks,  making  it  a  most  delightful  place.     Its 
proximity  to  the  city  renders  the  use  of  gas  an  easy  matter. 
It  will  be  observed  that  this  house  possesses  one  of  the 
most  captivating  requisites  of  a  suburban  residence.     It  has 
at  one  and  the  same  moment  a  wide  and  extended  view  of 
the  country,  rural  and  commercial;  the  river  and  the  rail- 
road; the  canal  and  the  waterfall  over  the  dam;  the  moun- 
tain   and    the    rustic    cemeteries;    men    in    busy  life,    and 
the  tombs  of  the  silent  dead  ;   churches  with  their  spires 
peeping  over  the  distant  green  hills,  an  emblem  of  man's  bet- 
ter nature  struggling  upward  from  earth,  even  though  she 
be  decked  with  beauteous,  but  enticing  flowers.     Within 
and  about  the  house,  all  is  rural  beauty,  quiet,  comfort,  and 
peace.     On  a  Sabbath  morning,  no    matter    whether   the 
wind  comes  blowing  from  the  north  or  the  south,  from  the 
east  or  the  west,  it  bears  the  welcome  sound  of  the  church- 
going  bell,  inviting  men  to  repose.     The  rippling  of  the 
stream  in  the  brook  is  a  silver  tone,  which,  to  him  whose 
mind  is  tuned  to  harmonious  beauty,  is  in  harmony  with  the 
bells.     Nature  answers  unto  art  and  art  unto  nature.     The 
silver  streamlet  ever  singeth  the  song  of  rest,  till  now  and 


HxlT 


14  xV. 


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v\ 

1  E 

IH2 

J 

Jl^ 

B 

• 

14  x  15 

J 

H 


PKINCIPAl.  FLOOR  OP  OCTAGONAL  COTTAGB. 


R  E  P  E  R  E  N 

C  E  S. 

A. 

Entrance  Hall. 

0.   Bed  Rooms. 

K. 

Sitting  Room. 

P.   Servant's  Bed. 

a 

Dining  Room. 

R.   Bath  Room    and  Wat»r 

o. 

Drawing  Room. 

Closet. 

K. 

Waiting  Room. 

8.  Stairs  to  Attic 

V 

Boudoir. 

T.  Cleaning  Room 

>:. 

Green-house. 

W.  Slops. 

H. 

Principal  Stairs. 

V.  Verandahs. 

I. 

Lobby. 

X.  Entrance  Porch 

K. 

Stairs  to  Kitc'n-n. 

Z.  Closets. 

L. 

Table. 

Y.  Closets  under  stair*. 

M 

Upper  Hall. 

y.  Hat  and  Coal  Qottt 

K. 

Passage. 

2.  Dumb  Waiter. 

THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUIl.hKR.  -239 

then  the  distant  bells  doth  answer.  The  cost  of  the  house 
was  $15,000. 

The  Suburban  Octagonal  Cottage  is  a  design  by  Wil- 
liam H.  Willcox,  Architect.  We  give  a  description  in  his 
own  words: 

"  The  above  elevation  and  accompanying  plans,  represent 
an  octagonal  cottage  suitable  for  a  suburban  residence,  and 
calculated  to  come  within  the  means  of  the  majority  of  our 
citizens.  It  can  be  built  well  (if  of  wood)  for  about 
$1,500. 

The  number  is  comparitively  small,  of  those  who  are  aware 
of  the  great  economy  of  the  octagonal  over  that  of  the 
square  house,  aud  the  decided  advantages  to  be  derived 
therefrom.  For  suburban  residences  this  octagonal  form  is 
peculiarly  well  suited. 

An  octangular  house  encloses  one  fifth  more  superfi- 
cial area  (with  a  given  extent  of  external  wall)  than  the 
square.  It  offers  less  resistance  to  the  wind,  looks  equally 
well  from  all  points  of  view,  and,  what  is  infinitely  of  greater 
account  to  housekeepers,  furnishes  an  abundant  supply  of 
closets;  and,  were  it  not  for  the  superior  rural  effect  of  the 
irregular  cottage,  (for  those  of  course  who  can  afford  to 
gratify  their  will,)  we  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  this 
octagonal  form  of  building  would  be  in  universal  repute. 
But  to  our  arrangement  : 

The  first  or  principal  floor  contains  a  good  entrance  hall; 
on  the  left-hand  side,  as  we  enter,  is  the  principal  staircase, 
separated  from  the  hall  by  an  arcade  of  three  arches,  which 
impart  a  cheerful,  pleasant  effect.  The  staircase  is  open  to 
the  attic  floor,  and  is  lighted  from  a  second  story  window, 
(the  glass  of  which  for  effect  might  be  slightly  tinted.)  The 
door  to  the  right,  opposite  the  entrance  door,  opens  into 
the  sitting-room,  the  one  to  the  left  communicating  with 
the  drawing-room.  In  the  sitting-room  a  good  closet  ia 
on  one  side  of  the  fireplace,  and  a  door  corresponding,  on 
the  opposite,  leads  to  the  drawing-room,  or  parlor;  on  the 


240  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

ball  side  of  the  sitting-room  is  the  boudoir,  and  on  the  oppo- 
site side  is  the  dining-room  door,  which  we  will  now  enter. 
This  room  acquires  its  size  principally  from  the  exten- 
sion carried  out  from  the  building  a  few  feet,  and  made  so 
as  to  correspond  exactly  with  other  portions  of  the  room, 
both  as  relates  to  construction  and  finish,  and  lighted  from 
a  triple  window  at  the  end;  on  one  side  is  the  serving  or 
waiting-room,  in  which  is  placed  a  triangular  dumb-waiter, 
leading  from  the  kitchen  below,  a  private  stairs  also  com- 
municating with  the  kitchen  and  pantry.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  dining-room  is  the  green-house;  and  small  though  it  be, 
it  might  answer  all  the  purposes  required  by  a  small  family. 
To  add  to  the  effect,  a  small  fountain  might  be  added  at  a 
trivial  expense.  The  doors  leading  to  the  green-house  and 
waiting-room  are  sash  doors.  On  leaving  the  dining-room  by 
the  only  remaining  door,  we  enter  the  drawing-room,  between 
which  and  the  sitting-room  a  lobby  intervenes.  There  is 
also  a  door  opening  to  the  green-house  from  this  room. 
The  drawing  and  sitting-rooms  are  each  lighted  at  the  ends 
with  a  bay  window.  All  the  rooms  on  this  floor  are  ten  feet 
high. 

Descending  to  the  basement,  we  will  now  take  a  hasty 
glance  at  the  disposition  of  that  floor,  before  ascending  to 
the  second  or  bed-room  floor.  Going  down  by  the  way  of  the 
principal  staircase,  we  find  a  kitchen  under  the  sitting-room, 
with  a  pantry,  scullery,  laundry,  fuel-room,  store-room,  milk- 
room,  several  closets,  and  a  cellar,  all  conveniently  arranged, 
and  with  a  view  to  the  saving  of  steps  as  well  as  time.  We 
will  now  turn  back  and  ascend  to  the  second  floor.  We  arrive 
upon  a  landing  at  the  head  of  the  main  stairs.  This  land- 
ing, or  upper  hall,  is  six  feet  nine  inches  wide.  The  first 
door  on  the  left  leads  to  a  bed-room,  as  also  the  first  on  the 
right.  The  second  door  on  the  right  opens  to  the  principal 
joed-room,  and  on  one  side  is  a  bath-room  and  water-closet — 
appendages  necessary  to  every  house  of  any  degree  of  pre- 
tension; and  on  the  corresponding  side  we  are  furnished  with 


THE    AMERICAN    C0TTA32    Bl'II.DER.  241 

a  large  linen-closet.  This  room  might  also  be  used  as  an 
upper  parlor  or  sitting-room,  if  the  necessities  of  the  owner 
required  it.  Stepping  again  into  the  hall,  we  pass  under 
an  arch  and  are  now  on  our  way  to  the  servants'  side  of 
the  house,  the  first  room  entered  being  the  servants'  room; 
and  on  the  side  is  the  cleaning-room,  to  obviate  unneces- 
sary steps  and  to  preserve  the  seclusive  and  private  charac- 
ter of  the  principal  staircase  and  hall.  In  this  room  arc 
placed  closets,  a  slop  inclosure,  (by  which  all  slops  are  con- 
veyed by  pipes  to  a  sewer  uuder  the  basement,)  and  other 
necessary  conveniences. 

Retracing  our  steps  to  about  midway  between  this  room 
and  the  principal  staircase,  we  ascend  to  the  attic,  where 
we  may  fiud  (if  the  arrangement  of  rooms  is  not  sufficient 
below)  other  rooms;  or,  if  otherwise  desired,  a  large  open 
space.  A  cistern  is  also  built  under  the  roof  with  filtering 
apparatus — for  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  is  most  desira- 
ble; a  staircase  leads  from  this  attic-floor  to  the  observatory 
above,  which  is  thirteen  feet  in  diameter.  In  this  house 
closets  are  abundant,  and  there  is  an  advautage  gained  in 
their  being  of  a  triangular  form. 

A  word  or  two  upon  the  placing  of  a  country  house 
and  its  appurtenances.  As  regards  the  situation  of  a  dwel- 
ling in  the  country,  it  is  far  better  placed  some  distance 
from  the  thoroughfare,  in  a  somewhat  retired  position, 
gleaming  through  a  veil  of  soft,  green  foliage,  than  by  expo- 
sing it  to  open  gaze;  the  satisfaction  thus  engendered  is 
of  the  highest  order.  Nothing  can  be  more  agreeable  and 
pleasing  than  a  long  approach ;  but  we  would  suggest  that, 
rather  than  not  keep  it  in  perfect  order,  it  be  reduce  in  length 
to  within  the  pecuniary  means  of  the  owner;  for  few  persons, 
without  the  experience,  are  aware  of  the  continual  drain 
this  long  approach  compels  one  to  submit  to. 

In  laying  out  our  places  of  rural  retirement,  we  should 
do  well  to  imitate  the  people  of  England.  They  do  not  let 
the  house  outshine  the  grounds,  but  make  it  somewhat  sub- 

11 


242  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

servient  to  them;  hence  the  acknowledgment,  by  almost  all, 
of  English  taste.  Where  nature  was  barren  or  rude,  the 
hand  of  English  taste  has  spread  a  thousand  waving  beau- 
ties o'er  the  scene — the  rill  that  flows  beneath  dark  rocks 
and  in  the  melancholy  shade  of  the  forest,  turns  from  its 
course,  winds  through  verdant  meadows,  swells  into  the 
artificial  lake,  or  slumbers  upon  the  plain  !  "In  England," 
says  our  Irving,  "  the  bleak  and  arid  site  is  transformed  into 
beauty,  and  no  matter  how  humble  its  pretensions,  it  is  made 
a  little  Eden.  The  cherishing  and  training  of  some  trees, 
the  cautious  pruning  of  others;  the  nice  distribution  of 
flowers  and  plants  of  tender  and  graceful  foliage ;  the  intro- 
duction of  a  green  slope  of  velvet  turf;  the  partial  opening 
to  a  peep  of  blue  distance,  or  silver  gleam  of  water — all 
these  are  managed  with  a  delicate  tact,  a  pervading  yet 
quiet  assiduity,  like  the  magic  touchings  with  which  a 
painter  finishes  up  a  favorite  picture."  Thus  are  the 
country  residences  of  England  so  beautifully  described,  so 
openly  praised. 

Every  man  of  landed  property,  of  what  size  soever,  should 
bo  a  planter.  "  Even  an  old  bachelor,"  as  Professor  Wil- 
son says,  "  is  not  only  free,  but  in  duty  bound  to  plant 
a  tree;"  and  if  his  organ  of  philoprogenitiveness  is  at  all 
developed,  he  must  feel  the  paternal  solicitude  aroused 
within  him,  and  submit  to  the  instinctive  yearnings  of  his 

heart. 

Many  people  are  prevented  from  planting  trees  on  account 
of  their  supposed  slow  growth,  but  this  is  surely  a  mistake. 
As  well  might  people,  with  the  same  logical  reasoning,  be 
prevented  from  being  married  because  a  male  requires 
twenty-one  years  to  roll  past  before  he  attains  his  majority. 
It  is  true  that  it  requires  a  long  time  for  a  tree  to  arrive  at 
maturity,  and  it  is  equally  true  that  trees  of  a  sufficient 
size  (for  present  convenience,  say  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
high)  may  be  removed.  Sir  H.  Stuart  planted  a  tract  of 
land   consisting  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  acres, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  243 

and  containing  trees,  some  of  them  as  much  as  sixty  feet 
high,  with  perfect  success — and,  prithee,  why  may  it  not  be 
done  here  ?  One  need  not,  then,  languish  for  some  finely- 
formed  tree  growing  in  the  corner  of  the  "farm,"  whose 
owner  grudges  it  ground  room,  neither  is  he  obliged  to  wait 
ten  or  fifteen  years  for  the  shade  thereof. 

But  ought  the  supposed  slow  growth  of  trees  to  prevent 
our  planting  them  ?  We  see  no  valid  reason  that  it  should; 
besides,  who  does  not  feel  great  joy  from  seeing  the  quon- 
dam sapling,  after  a  long  series  of  waterings  and  careful 
protection,  now  overshawdowing  us  and  returning  iu  a 
grateful  manner  the  care  bestowed  upon  its  progress  up, 
by  offering  us  shade;  they,  in  return,  will  not  suffer  the 
"  noonday  sun  to  smite  their  father's  head."  Who,  we  would 
ask,  does  not  realise  the  fond  attachments  arising  from  such 
paternal  anxiety  ? 

If  we  examine  carefully  and  observe,  we  shall  perceive 
that  the  growth  of  trees  is  not  so  dilatory  after  all;  if 
any  one  is  predisposed  to  a  doubt,  let  him  keep  out  of  sight 
of  them  for  a  short  time,  and  returning  under  cover  of  night, 
hasten  on  a  fine  summur  morning  and  take  a  peep  at  them  ! 
He  will  hardly  recognise  the  form  of  a  single  tree ;  the  arbo- 
rets  that  he  planted  are  now  trees  of  shade;  the  gradual 
tumefaction  has  burst  asunder  the  little  rods  put  round 
them  for  protection.  Then  do  we  recall  to  mind  the 
"  credulous  affection"  with  which  "  we  beheld  their  tender 
buds  expand."  "  Besides,  in  every  stage,  how  interesting 
both  a  wood  and  sap  tree  and  a  flesh  and  blood  child." 
Do  you  perceive  yon  beautiful  rosy-cheeked,  golden-haired 
Gertrude,  beholding,  with  all  the  cerulean  brilliancy  of  her 
eyes,  the  exquisite  transparency  of  that  dew-drop  "  which 
the  sun  has  let  escape  unmelted,  even  on  the  meridian 
hours"  on  yon  camelia-bud  ?  What  tender  emotions  fill  the 
npheavings  of  that  tender  breast,  as  this  small  jewel  of 
nature  occupied  her  attention  !     That  is  innocence  ! 

It  is  true  that  many  of  our  cottage  residences  arc  greatly 


244  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

improved,  and  present  very  striking,  picturesque,  park-like 
paradises,  thanks  to  the  much  lamented  Downing;  but  there 
is  yet  room  for  improvement;  much  remains  to  be  done, 
both  as  relates  to  our  domicils  and  our  plantations. 

WILLIAM    H  WILLCOX,  Architect. 

381  Broadway,  N.  Y." 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  245 


CHAPTER     XVIII. 


LANDSCAPE      GARDENING. 

A  garden  is  indispensably  connected  with  a  rural  home. 
It  has  been  observed,  by  some  writers,  that  landscape  gar- 
dening cannot  be  reduced  to  rule;  that  it  must  be  governed 
by  the  taste  of  the  architect,  and  cannot  be  taught.  We 
will  concede  the  point  that  no  set  of  rules  can  apply  equally 
to  all  places,  and  that  the  features  of  the  ground,  the 
nature  of  the  views,  the  extent  of  the  arena,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  water,  trees,  hills,  dales,  rocks,  swamps,  and 
other  features,  must  dictate  to  a  landscape  gardener  a 
good  deal  of  his  work;  but  there  are  certain  rules  which 
can  hardly  be  departed  from  under  any  circumstances,  and 
a  good  deal  of  useful  instruction  may  be  imparted  in  writing. 
Nature  is  our  great  teacher  in  this  branch  of  the  profession. 
When  we  see  a  beautiful  landscape,  and  are  smitten  with 
the  harmony  of  the  picture,  we  may  safely  study  it  as  a 
lesson.  Is  there  a  straight  road  ?  No.  Is  there  any  thing 
formal  ?  No.  Is  there  a  square  pond,  or  lake,  or  river  ? 
No.  If  there  be  one  of  these,  the  eye  is  offended.  If  it  be 
not  the  artificial  work  of  men's  hands,  it  may  be  wonderful, 
but  certainly  not  pleasing;  the  charm  would  be  broken. 
We  find,  in  all  pleasing  landscapes,  a  total  absence  of  all 
formality ;  and  the  gardener's  task  is  to  imitate  the  beauties, 
and  to  bring  into  his  work  as  many  of  the  best  features  as 
the  nature  of  the  ground  he  has  to  work  on  will  admit.  If 
the  ground  be  undulating  or  fiat,  there  must  be  no  sharp 
turns.  A  road  must  be  laid  down  in  graceful  sweeps;  hard 
lines  are  always  unpleasant  to  the  eye,  aud  must  be  avoided. 
Abrupt  turnings  and  elbows  are  equally  objectionable.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  rivers  or  rivulets  which  run  through 


246  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

grounds;  anything  like  a  straight  margin  is  offensive;  angles 
are  bad,  and  whenever  such  occur,  and  cannot  be  altered, 
they  must  be  concealed.  Roads,  too,  should  be,  as  far  as  it 
can  be  contrived,  level,  and  in  undulating  ground;  the  rising, 
unless  very  gentle,  must  be  lowered,  and  each  side  eased 
off  to  a  gentle  slope  on  the  parts  next  the  cutting.  All 
these  things  are  to  be  attended  to  as  so  many  rules,  and  all 
deviations  must  be  exceptions  forced  on  the  gardener;  and 
his  study  must  then  be  how  they  can  best  be  hidden  by 
planting,  or  reconciled  by  other  schemes.  It  is  rarely  that 
the  landscape-gardener  has  to  deal  with  barren  ground; 
there  is  usually  a  quantity  of  trees  of  various  heights  and 
kinds.  It  must  be  his  study  to  appropriate  these  to  his 
design,  or,  at  least,  some  of  them.  If,  however,  there  be 
any  formality  or  stiffness  in  their  situations — which  is  fre- 
quently the  case  if  he  has  to  take  in  fields  that  have  been 
hedged  and  timbered — a  sufficient  number  must  be  taken 
down  to  break  the  line,  and,  on  grubbing  of  hedges,  all  the 
common  6tuff  must  be  destroyed  first,  leaving  any  portions 
that  have  grown  up  at  all  ornamental  until  a  later  period 
of  his  work ;  then  he  may,  if  he  feels  inclined,  work  to  them ; 
for  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  it  takes  many  years  to 
equal  things  that  have  grown  up  well.  Not  that  he  is  to 
sacrifice  his  plan  to  such  an  object,  but  that  he  must  not 
hastily  destroy  what  may  be  found  highly  useful.  If  a  man 
has  an  unconditional  instruction  to  form  a  garden  upon  his 
own  plan,  and  to  pay  no  regard  to  anything  that  is  stand- 
ing, he  will  be  less  inclined  to  sacrifice  any  rule,  whatever 
may  be  there  ;  but  there  is,  nevertheless,  as  much  art  in 
adapting  a  plan  to  circumstances,  as  in  carrying  out  a  per- 
fect design,  and,  perhaps,  more;  but,  as  a  matter  of  cost, 
some  hundreds  of  dollars  may  often  be  saved  without  sacri- 
ficing any  general  principle ;  and  it  is  the  reckless  inatten- 
tion to  this,  in  too  many  artists,  that  deters  persons  from 
undertaking  extensive  works.  All  landscape  gardening 
should  be  conducted  with  some  regard  to  economy ;  and  we 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

mention  this  because  two  men  may  produce  results  equally 
good,  one  having  done  it  at  half  the  cost  of  the  other. 
Locdex,  who  advocates  a  mixture  of  principles,  says  : — 
"  There  appears  to  be  two  principles  which  enter  into  the 
combination  of  gardening;  those  which  regard  it  as  a  mixed 
art,  or  an  art  of  design,  and  which  we  called  the  principles 
of  relative  beauty,  and  those  which  regard  it  as  an  imita- 
tive art  and  are  called  the  principles  of  natural  or  universal 
beauty.  The  ancient  or  geometric  gardening  is  guided 
wliolly  by  the  former  principles;  landscape  gardening,  as  an 
initiative  art,  wholly  by  the  latter  f  but  he  says,  "as  the 
art  of  forming  a  country  residence,  its  arrangements  are 
guided  or  influenced  by  both  principles."  We  will  not  deny 
that  in  most  estates  there  will  be  ample  opportunities  of 
indulging  both  tastes;  but  the  one  should  be  so  entirely 
independent  of  the  other,  as  not  to  be  even  seen  at  the  same 
time;  for  the  one  is  perfectly  inconsistent  with  the  other, 
and  we  consider  they  may  be  treated  as  two  distinct  sub- 
jects. The  architect  may  scratch  ou  paper  all  he  wants  of 
geometric  gardening;  he  will  do  it  to  suit  his  building  and 
his  taste;  and  having  done  this,  the  gardener  may  work  to 
line  and  rule,  and  follow  his  instructions;  but  let  us  not 
compare  the  oue  with  the  other,  or  mention  them  as  belong- 
ing to  each  other,  or  having  any  relation  to  one  another. 

Pofe  says,  "  The  principles  of  landscape  gardening  con- 
sist of,  first,  the  study  and  display  of  natural  beauties; 
second,  the  concealment  of  defects;  third,  never  to  lose 
sight  of  common  sense." 

Wheatley  says,  "  The  business  of  a  gardener  is  to  dis- 
cover and  show  all  the  advantages  of  the  place  upon  which 
he  is  employed,  to  supply  deficiencies,  to  correct  its  faults, 
and  improve  its  beauties."  Another  takes  truth  and  nature 
for  his  guide,  and  all  his  rules  are  comprised  in  "  the  unity 
of  the  whole  and  the  connection  of  the  parts."  And 
Marshall  wraps  all  his  up  in  three  words — "  Nature, 
Utility  and  Taste."     We  confess  our  notions  of  landscape 


248  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

gardening  to  be  imitating  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  bring- 
ing as  many  of  them  together  as  is  consistent  with  the 
means  employed  and  the  site  we  are  at  work  upon;  but  we 
do  not,  by  imitation,  mean  the  mimicry.  We  have  no  notion 
of  little  waterfalls  and  puny  rocks;  no  doll's-house  arbor's 
and  diminutive  lakes;  for,  above  all  things,  we  should  lay 
it  down  as  a  rule,  that  nothing  more  should  be  attempted 
than  can  be  carried  out  upon  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to 
avoid  any  appearance  of  art.  Xothing  can  be  more  con- 
temptible than  doing  things  on  a  small  scale  for  the  sake  of 
crowding  more  features  in  a  landscape.  We  do  not  mean  to 
say  that  we  are  to  have  no  rock  smaller  than  Gibraltar,  and 
no  lake  less  than  Superior;  that  our  temples  are  to  be  as 
gigantic  as  the  Coliseum,  or  our  rivers  like  the  Mississippi; 
but  that  they  are  not  to  be  less  than  those  scenes  which 
excite  our  admiration  within  reach  of  our  ordinary  sHit- 
and  if  there  be  only  room  for  a  plain  landscape,  it  is  folly 
to  attempt  more.  We  have  seen  on  one  acre  of  ground 
three  or  four  trumpery  fountains;  one  broad  path  with  a 
sweep  quite  landscape  fashion ;  some  very  trumpery  rock- 
work,  as  if  somebody  had  accidentally  upset  a  cart-load  of 
stones ;  a  pond  which  would  have  been  crowded  by  a  dozen 
or  two  of  ducks;  a  mound  about  as  large  as  a  good-sized 
manure  heap,  and  on  the  top  a  temple,  so  called,  which 
appeared  as  if  the  children  had  left  some  of  their  playthings 
there;  we  had  a  shallow  canal  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
over  it  a  rustic  bridge,  and  at  a  remote  corner — that  is  as 
remote  as  it  could  be  in  a  place  of  eighty  yards  long — a 
summer  house  ten  feet  by  six.  But  certainly  the  mansion 
and  its  appurtenances  were  of  a  piece  with  the  lilliputian 
garden,  which,  by  the  way,  we  had  nearly  said  comprised  all 
the  styles  :  the  geometric,  the  Italian,  the  old  English,  and 
the  landscape — and  all  in  sight  at  once,  reminding  us  of  a 
tailor's  pattern  card,  or  the  shutters  of  a  color  warehouse. 
The  mansion  was  but  one  story  high,  and  it  had  a  conserv- 
atory, an  observatory,  a  picture  gallery,  a  coach  house,  sta- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  249 

bles,  servant's  apartments  over  the  latter,  even  with  the  hay 
loft  which  held  four  trusses.  Then  there  was  a  farm-yard 
with  its  little  barn,  cow-house,  hen-roost,  hay-rack — this  was 
the  produce  of  the  farm,  and  might  have  filled  a  one-horse 
cart — a  dairy,  quite  fanciful,  with  colored  glass  windows,  to 
match  the  conservatory;  a  kitchen  garden,  which  would 
have  been  twenty  yards  by  twenty  feet,  but  a  melon  ground 
was  cut  off  it  at  the  end  nearest  the  stable.  Some  of  the 
boundary  was  hedged,  some  walled,  some  oak  palings,  and  a 
small  portion  rustic  fence. 

Now  all  this  may  be  thought  beside  the  mark,  but  it  is  a 
general,  if  not  universal  failing  among  owners,  to  cram  in  all 
sorts  of  objects;  and  as  no  landscape  gardener,  who  has  a 
name  to  damage,  will  undertake  such  work,  the  merest  pre- 
tenders are  employed,  and  the  place  spoiled  by  attempting 
and  failing  in  all  that  is  attempted.  Within  three  miles  of 
this  incongruous  mass  of  things,  we  have  mentioned,  there 
was  a  house  with  just  three-quarters  of  an  acre  of  land,  of 
an  angular  form;  a  twelve  feet  road  j  retty  nearly  skirted  it, 
except  to  allow  of  a  plantation  of  shrubs  and  trees,  in  which 
there  were  openings  that  led,  no  one  knew  where,  from 
appearances,  though  in  fact  they  were  to  conceal  the  real 
boundaries,  and  led  nowhere;  there  were  a  few  judicious 
clumps  to  account  for  the  necessary  turns  in  the  road,  and 
at  the  most  remote  angle  from  the  house  there  was  a  temple 
composed  of  a  facade  and  four  Ionic  pillars  on  a  floor  raised 
by  three  or  four  steps,  and  forming  an  apartment  fifteen  feet 
square  with  an  open  front.  However,  all  but  the  front  was 
concealed  by  trees,  and  although  the  eye  commanded  tha 
whole  real  space,  everything  was  upon  such  a  scale,  that 
it  appeared  like  a  very  beautiful  part  of  a  large  domain 
instead  of  a  three-cornered  bit  of  ground  under  an  acre.  We 
mention  these  two  circumstances  to  record  our  dislike  for 
one  and  our  admiration  for  the  other;  and  we  maintain, 
notwithstanding  all  that  may  be  said  about  mixed  styles, 
that  the  landscape  garden  should  be  entirely  free  from  any- 

11* 


250  THE  AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

thing  artificial;  and,  as  we  approach  a  mansion  or  conserv- 
atory, or  other  architectural  object  where  straight  lines  are 
forced  on  us,  let  the  planting  conceal  it  until  we  are  close  to 
it.     Let  us  step  out  of  natural  scenery  to  the  artificial,  but 
not  be  able  to  view  both  at  once.    Nobody  can  admire  artifi- 
cial gardening,  or  rather  formal  gardening,  more  than  we  do, 
in  its  place ;  but  what  can  be  worse  than  the  mixture  now 
so  common  in  public  establishments — a  long,  straight  road, 
patched   on  each  side  with   flower-beds,  and  a  miserable 
attempt  at  a  landscape  within  sight  ?     We  insist  that  one 
or  the  other  should  be  adopted  in  earnest.     Let  the  eye  fall 
on  nothing  but  landscape  through  all  the  main  space,  and  let 
the  parterres,  the  conservatories,  statues,  fountains,  geo- 
metrical flower-beds,  vases,  orange  trees,  and  general  dis- 
play, be  shut  off,  so  as  to  form  no  part  of  the  general  scenery. 
But,  according  to  our  definition,  the  adoption  of  one  style 
for  the  flower-garden,  and  another  for  the  general  features, 
does  not  warrant  the  application  of  the  term  mixed  style. 
There  is  no  mixture  in  it.      The  landscape  is  to  itself  ;  the 
parterre  is  alone.      In  one  we  have  none  but  geometrical 
figures;  in  the  other  we  have  not  a  straight  line.    For  even 
if  the  boundary  be  straight,  the  planting  should  alone  con- 
ceal it.    We  have  no  notion,  like  Alison,  that  the  landscape 
gardener  is  "to  create  a  scenery  more  pure,  more  harmoni- 
ous, and  more  expressive,  than  any  that  is  to  be  found  in 
nature  herself,"  for  it  is  impossible.      There  are  rough  and 
even  uncouth  scenes  in  nature;  she  has  her  rugged  places, 
her  barren  mountains,  moss-covered  crags,  and  ugly,  cold 
and  cheerless  spots ;  but  she  has  features  which  are  inimita- 
ble, and  he  who  can  even  approach  them  in  beauty,  and  har- 
mony and  expression,  must  be  master  of  his  art.     Let  the 
landscape  gardener  do  his  best  to  copy  some  of  the  most 
lovely  spots  on  earth,  and  he  will  find  himself  at  a  very  hum- 
ble distance  from  his  task  mistress.     But  he  has  one  advan- 
tage on  his  side,  he  may  bring  together  features  which  are 
rarely  combined,  and  therefore  produce  an  imitation,  how- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  251 

?ver  it  may  fall  short  of  scenes  which  few  have  witnessed. 
The  bend  of  a  river  which  is  grand  in  one  place,  and  the 
style  of  wood  which  is  beautiful  in  another,  a  bridge  which 
is  picturesque  in  a  third,  a  rammer  house  that  is  unexcep- 
tionable in  a  fourth,  rocky  broken  ground  that  gives  great 
effect  may  be  copied  from  a  fifth,  and  then  comes  the  gard- 
ener's art  into  play.  He  has  so  to  contrive  his  scene,  that 
the  whole  shall  harmonize;  and  although  at  every  step  we 
take,  new  beauties  still  break  in  upon  our  view,  they  shall 
all  be  in  good  keeping.  We  will  now  treat  of  the  work 
under  the  several  heads  of  ground-work,  parks,  roads,  trees, 
mounds,  valleys,  rock-work,  lakes,  rivers,  water-falls,  &c. 

THE  FIRST  STEPS  IN  FORMING  A  LANDSCAPE  GARDEN*. 

We  must  first  contrive  to  get  a  complete  view  of  the 
ground  we  are  to  appropriate,  and  the  adjoining  lands,  and 
see  to  the  boundary.  This  of  course  will  be  different  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  sufficiency  of  the  ground 
must  first  be  attended  to.  If  there  be  a  large  space  of 
ground,  so  that  we  need  be  under  no  difficulty  as  to  scope 
for  our  operations,  we  need  not  trouble  ourselves  much  about 
timber  on  the  boundary  line;  but  it  must  be  made  perfect, 
whether  it  be  marked  by  banks  and  ditches,  hedges  or 
palings. 

Our  next  operation  is  clearing  the  ground.  Here  we 
may  have  to  grub  up  hedges,  so  as  to  break  all  the  interval 
lines.  Rows  of  timber  must  be  so  broken  as  to  remove 
everything  like  stiffness.  There  must  not  a  single  line  cross 
the  eye.  Throw  all  the  worst  trees.  Save  in  groups  or 
single  trees  all  that  are  ornamental,  and  that  may  perchance 
be  worked  into  the  scene.  If  hedges  have  been  neglected, 
there  may  be  good  clumps  of  thorn  and  other  wood  usually 
found  in  hedges,  and  grown  up  to  a  considerable  height,  and 
what  the  gardeners  call  "well  furnished,"  that  is,  branches 
reaching  the  ground,  clumps  of  trees  formed  as  it  were  by 
neglect,  but  nevertheless  rich  in  themselves.     They  can  at 


252  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

any  time  be  grubbed  up,  but  in  the  meantime  let  them  re- 
main, wherever  they  are  sufficiently  handsome.  Let  this 
clearance  go  on  all  over  the  site  intended  to  be  brought  into 
the  landscape.  We  may  then  consider  where  the  entrances 
are  to  be,  from  one  or  more  roads;  and  we  have  also  to 
consider  what  foot-paths  or  roads  there  may  be  of  a  public 
nature  that  may  not  be  shut  up;  and  while  there  may  be 
parts  left  open  to  the  view,  large  parts  must  be  shut  out  by 
mounds,  planting  or  other  contrivances,  and  the  whole 
secured  to  its  own  track  only  by  sunk  fencing,  where  the 
view  is  required  to  cross  it. 

Our  next  consideration  is,  whether  we  can,  with  advantage 
to  the  estate  and  without  detriment  to  the  public,  turn  the 
course  of  such  paths  or  roads,  for  they  are  often  nuisances, 
and  should  be  removed  from  the  mansion.  To  obtain  a  good 
view  of  the  whole,  we  must  contrive  to  see  it  from  the  highest 
places,  and  with  such  helps  as  are  at  hand.  The  top  wind- 
ows, or  roof  of  the  house,  or  a  high  tree,  or  if  necessary  a 
temporary  scaffolding,  must  be  placed  in  the  best  situation. 
Our  general  plan  must  then  be  formed,  although  it  need  not 
be  reduced  to  paper.  If  the  ground  be  much  diversified  with 
hill  and  dale,  the  levels  must  be  taken.  Undulating  ground 
is  very  picturesque,  but  the  roads  must  be  cut  level,  and  the 
sides,  where  the  cuttings  go  through,  must  be  formed  with 
sloping  banks;  but  if  the  ground  be  a  regular  slope,  or  up 
a  long  hill  and  down  again,  you  must  consider  first,  whether 
the  expense  of  so  long  a  cutting  would  be  advisable,  and 
second,  whether  it  will  form  or  derange  your  picture. 
Sloping  banks  for  part  of  the  length  of  a  road  are  very  effec- 
tive; but  the  banks  must  be  judiciously  planted  here  and 
there,  and  they  must  be  neatly  contrived  to  make  them  pic- 
turesque. According  as  you  mean  to  destroy  or  use  the 
uneven  surface,  so  must  your  preparations  be  made.  If  the 
ground  is  to  be  levelled,  all  this  must  be  done  before  you 
mark  out  your  roads. 

In  short,  before  you  lay  down  one  foot  of  your  plan,  all 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTaG£    BUILDER.  253 

that  must  be  removed  should  be  cleared  away,  before  you 
begin  anything  else. 

If,  in  looking  over  your  work,  there  happened  to  be  enough 
cleared  to  begin,  you  must  endeavor  so  to  shape  your  course 
a>  to  appropriate  as  much  of  the  really  ornamental  timber 
and  boshes  as  possible,  but  you  must  not  be  tempted  to  sacri- 
fice any  principles  to  save  a  tree.  In  forming  a  main  road, 
it  is  always  desirable  to  bring  it  moderately  near  the  out- 
side of  the  premises;  and  if  there  be  much  ornameutal  wood, 
the  road  may  be  so  formed  as  to  command  the  best  view  of 
it.  No  matter  how  many  windings  there  arc  in  a  road,  if 
the  sweeps  are  very  graceful  and  not  in  any  place  abrupt, 
for  convenience  must  not  be  sacrificed  uuder  any  circumstan- 
ces. The  presence  of  a  river  or  lake  must  not  turn  your 
road  out  of  the  way  you  desire  to  take,  if  it  can  be  crossed 
by  a  bridge;  and  here  is  the  great  danger  of  inconsistency. 
If  the  scene  is  to  be  rural,  the  bridge  should  be  rustic;  if  the 
presence  of  art  must  be  manifested,  here  is  room  for  the 
taste  of  the  architect  to  be  displayed,  but  the  charm  of 
rural  scenery  is  destroyed  at  once.  A  rustic  bridge  can  be 
made  as  strong  as  a  fine  architectural  pile,  and  the  less  for- 
mality there  is  the  better.  However,  we  will  begin  by  clear- 
ing the  ground  of  all  that  must  come  away:  let  all  the 
ditches  and  hollows  peculiar  to  the  old  partitions  of  fields, 
paddocks,  and  enclosures,  be  filled  up;  the  ground  not  lev- 
elled perhaps,  because  that  may  be  contrary  to  the  intended 
plan,  but  smoothed  on  the  surface,  which  may  nevertheless 
be  uneven.  In  landscape  gardening,  there  is  not  generally 
any  more  required  of  the  levelling  or  smoothing  than  can 
be  done  by  the  eye  and  common  level;  and  even  the  latter 
is  in  few  cases  wanted. 

This  preparation  of  the  groundwork  may  be  followed  by 
forming 

THE    ROADS  AND  PATHS. 

From  the  chief  entrance  to  the  mansion,  there  must  be  a 
jarriage  way,  and  this  should  be  continued  around  the  premi- 


254  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

ses — not  exactly  on  the  skirts,  but  so  that  the  full  extent  of 
the  premises  devoted  to  the  landscape  may  be  seeu;  and  it 
must,  though  it  may  lead  to  other  entrances,  be  continued 
to  the  main  entrance  also.  As  the  ground  immediately 
adjoining  the  mansion  is  generally  in  high  keeping,  and  some- 
times laid  out  to  correspond  with  the  architectural  lines  of 
the  house  itself — such  as  a  terrace  the  entire  length  of  the 
front,  with  statues,  vases,  and  the  like,  the  landscape  gard- 
ener's study  should  be  to  conceal  all  until  you  come  upon  it, 
and  the  landscape  is  shut  out.  But  if  the  landscape  style  is 
to  be  kept  up  throughout,  so  far  as  all  in  front  of  the  main 
entrance  is  concerned,  the  more  formal  portions  may  be  still 
more  isolated.  In  laying  down  the  road,  therefore,  use 
stakes  which  can  be  seen  at  a  distance,  and  mark  out  the 
plan  by  placing  them  in  the  centre  of  your  proposed  road; 
let  it  take  a  gentle  sweep  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  entrance; 
not  abruptly;  but  by  an  easy  turn  on  each  side,  as  soon  as 
the  road  can  be  made  to  do  it  without  inconveniencing  the 
drive  of  the  carriage.  When  we  say  that  this  road  is  to  skirt 
the  premises,  we  mean  that  it  shall  go  in  some  places  within 
twenty  yards,  and  in  others  thirty  or  forty — the  object  being 
to  give  a  large  space  of  green.  Where  the  roads  part  at 
the  entrance,  there  must  be  a  tolerable  heavy  plantation, 
both  to  prevent  the  view  of  the  house  and  to  form  a  reason 
for  the  roads  diverging;  for  let  it  be  remembered  that,  as 
nature  gives  a  reason  for  the  absence  of  straight  lines,  the 
landscape  gardener  must  do  the  same.  There  must  be  an 
apparently  natural  cause  for  every  turn.  This  is  evidently 
the  case,  because  trees,  mounds,  or  water,  or  some  other 
natural  obstacle,  prevents  us  from  going  straight,  and  the 
gardener  has  to  create  these  natural  obstacles.  It  must 
always  be  shown  that  the  road  cannot  go  straight:  clumps 
of  shrubs  here,  a  mound  there,  water  in  the  other  place,  are 
in  the  way  of  a  straight  line ;  and  keeping  this  in  view,  the 
road  may  not  only  be  sweeping  round  the  estate  on  the 
dressed  part  of  it,  but  it  may  also  go  here  and  there  in  a 


THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  256 

serpentine  figure,  the  hollow  sides  being  occupied  by  some 
proper  obstacle,  which  however  may  give  harmony  and  grace 
to  the  view.  Where  the  road  forms,  as  it  must  in  all  of  its 
turus,  part  of  the  segment  of  a  circle,  the  inner  side  of  the 
circle  may  be  planted  with  shrubs,  forming  a  clump  close  up 
to  the  road;  but  in  any  clump  or  figure  that  we  may  chooso 
to  adopt  iuside,  to  render  the  scene  broken  and  yet  harmo- 
nious, it  is  that  we  make  a  road  serpentine,  independently 
of  its  general  direction,  which  would  be  round  the  estate, 
that  we  may  plant  on  both  sides  occasionally;  and,  as  we 
propose  from  the  first  to  have  a  good  space  to  spare  on  the 
outside  between  the  road  and  the  boundary  planting,  this 
plan  of  serpentining,  it  affords  great  opportunity  of  varying 
the  planting. 

There  is  noting  which  so  much  cuts  up  a  ground  and 
detracts  from  its  grandeur  of  effect,  as  a  number  of  roads  and 
paths  crossing  each  other.  Beyond  the  main  road,  which  at 
the  least  should  be  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  wide,  and  would 
be  better  if  it  were  sixteen,  leave  all  the  inside  space  of  park 
or  park-like  ground  in  view;  if  this  be  cut  up  by  cross  paths 
and  other  roads,  without  any  excuse  for  them,  the  whole 
charm  of  the  landscape  is  destroyed. 

If  there  be  other  roads,  and  the  space  is  sufficiently  large 
to  warrant  it,  let  there  be  some  temptation  to  use  them. 
A  lake  is  an  object;  so  if  there  be  a  woody  glen,  a  shep- 
herd's hut  in  the  rustic  style  of  building,  a  boat  house  after 
the  style  of  the  fisherman's  hut,  or  any  other  attractive  ob- 
ject, a  road  may  lead  to  it  or  past  it;  but  plain  roads, 
merely  passing  across  plain  pasture,  are  intolerable.  There 
should,  for  good  effect,  be  a  spacious  green  lawn  or  pastur- 
age, for  expanse  is  a  great  object;  and  although  a  noble 
specimen  of  wood  may  be  tolerated,  it  is  as  unwise  to  cut 
up  the  space  with  specimens  as  with  roads.  If  we  must  have 
other  roads,  let  the  same  rule  be  obeyed;  the  road  must  not 
be  straight,  and  there  must  be  obstacles  to  cause  its  devia- 
tion: it  would  look  silly  to  see  a  road  in  half  a  dozen  differ- 


256  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

ent  directions  over  plain  grass,  without  any  reason  for  not 
going  straight,  because  common  sense  would  teach  everybody 
not  only  to  wonder  why  it  went  winding,  but  to  give  a  prac- 
tical lesson  in  his  own  person,  by  going  over  the  grass  the 
shortest  way. 

To  set  about  making  the  road,  when  we  have  pegged  out 
the  direction — we  mean  to  carry  it,  nr  rather  cut  it — let 
six  or  eight  feet  be  measured  on  each  side,  according  to  the 
width  it  is  to  be,  and  let  the  turf  or  the  ground,  be  marked 
with  stakes  on  both  sides  the  row  of  pegs  put  down;  and, 
in  measuring  this,  be  exceedingly  careful  to  measure  at  right 
angles;  for  if  the  rods  used  were  sloped  one  way  or  the  other, 
there  would  be  less  width  marked. 

A  very  easy  way  of  marking  it  would  be  to  take  a  line 
the  exact  length  that  will  reach  across  the  road,  and  let  one 
man  go  on  each  side,  and  having  a  knot  in  the  middle  of 
the  line,  place  it  against  the  pegs,  and  each  set  down  a  stake 
or  peg  at  the  right  place  as  to  width,  and  tolerably  close. 
The  gardener  should  then  survey  his  road  before  a  turf  is 
disturbed;  and  if  he,  upon  looking  and  walking  along  it 
carefully,  sees  no  awkward  bends,  but  easy  sweeps  and  grace- 
ful though  varied  curves,  he  may  take  up  his  centre  row  of 
pegs  and  have  it  dug  out  one  good  spit  all  over  and  thrown 
out  ;  and  the  cart,  which  must  bring  stones  or  gravel  to  fill 
up,  may  take  off  the  loam  or  top  spit  to  fill  up  hollow  aces, 
or  to  replace  the  holes  that  are  made  in  digging  gravel,  or 
to  improve  mounds,  or,  if  there  be  no  use  for  it,  let  it  form 
an  artificial  mound  anywhere,  to  be  removed  when  required. 
We  are  supposing  the  ground  to  be  well  drained,  and  espe- 
cially the  road  part;  for,  unless  the  land  is  properly  drained, 
half  the  money  and  labor  expended  on  it  are  lost.  This  is 
the  most  laborious  of  all  garden  work ;  but  unless  there  be 
a  good  foundation,  and  the  road  hard  and  dry,  it  is  a  nui- 
sance. 

After  the  rough  stones  and  hard  materials  have  settled 
in  their  place,  a  coating  of  finer  gravel  must  be  used,  and 


THE    AMKRICA.V    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  251 

whole  well  rolled  down  after  every  shower  of  rain.  The 
road  should  be  cut  level,  or  nearly  so,  through  all  (inequali- 
ties; and  if  it  ascend  or  descend  a  little  all  the  tray,  the  slope 
should  be  kept  uniform.  As  regards  the  form  in  which  the 
road  should  be  left,  it  should  be  rising  in  the  middle  so  as  to 
throw  the  water  off  to  the  edges.  If  the  grass  on  the  land 
be  good  enough  to  represent  lawn,  or  pretty  even  pasture 
for  park-like  grounds,  such  parts  as  may  have  been  necessa- 
rily disturbed  may  be  sown  with  grass  seeds  after  levelling; 
but  if  the  lawn  has  been  for  the  most  part  disturbed,  each 
side  of  the  road  should  be  levelled  to  it  at  the  edge,  and  new 
turf  edgings  a  foot  wide  should  be  laid  along  at  the  whole 
distance,  and  the  rest  may  be  good. 

Paths  are  like  roads  upon  a  smaller  scale;  but  in  the  lar- 
ger features  of  the  landscape  they  should  never  be  less  than 
six  feet  wide,  that  three  people  may  walk  abreast;  and  as 
the  road  is  more  especially  for  carriages,  we  may  be  excused 
for  making  a  path  go  a  nearer  way  to  the  mansion,  but  even 
in  the  necessary  deviations  to  make  it  take  a  graceful  sweep, 
we  must  not  omit  the  obstacles  which  should  be  formed  by 
planting,  by  mounds,  or  other  contrivances;  and  in  places  it 
must  go  through,  or  between  clumps  of  shrubs,  close  to  the 
verges,  so  that  there  is  good  reason  for  carriages  not  goings 
the  same  way;  for  this  purpose  the  entrance  to  the  path 
should  be  between  the  plantations,  that  it  may  seem  to  be 
what  it  really  is. 

If  there  be  a  lake,  or  a  rivulet,  or  a  river,  it  is  well  to 
make  the  path  for  some  distance  traverse  its  margin;  or  if 
there  be  any  other  object  worth  a  nearer  inspection,  the 
path,  or  a  branch  from  it,  should  lead  to  or  past  it;  and  if 
the  grounds  about  the  house  be  shut  out  from  the  genera} 
landscape,  the  path  should  enter  it  without  interfering  with 
the  road;  and  the  planting  at  the  outlet,  which  in  fact  forms 
the  entrance  near  the  house,  should  be  as  plainly  indicative 
of  its  nature  and  purpose,  and  so  contrived  as  to  be  orna- 
mental, and  not  so  formed  as  to  admit  of  any  lengthened 


258  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

view.  These  principles  can  be  carried  out  on  a  small  scale, 
or  rather  on  a  limited  scale,  as  well  as  on  a  large  one,  pro- 
vided there  be  room  enough  to  give  the  desired  width ;  but, 
if  the  space  be  too  limited,  it  would  be  best  to  omit  the  path 
altogether,  for  however  small  a  place  may  be,  roads  and 
paths  should  seem  part  of  a  large  one,  instead  of  being  re- 
duced in  proportions. 

TREES,   SHRUBS,  AND  PLANTING. 

We  take  it  for  granted  that  there  are  in  places  some  trees, 
bushes  and  ornamental  wood  standing,  and  we  now  come 
to  their  appropriation.  On  the  outside  of  the  road  we 
have  already  provided  various  widths  of  space  which  have  to 
be  furnished,  or  to  stand  as  lawn  or  parterre,  as  the  case 
may  be;  and,  first,  we  have  to  see  that  palings,  or  any  other 
fence,  be  quite  concealed  by  shrubs  as  high  as  the  object 
they  are  to  hide;  this  must  be  done  with  shrubs  obedient  to 
the  knife — common  and  Portugal  laurels,  yews  and  box, 
alaternus,  Aucuba  japonica,  and  holly,  are  among  the  most 
useful,  because  they  can  be  allowed  to  grow  up,  or  be  kept 
down  as  well,  and  answer  the  general  purpose  by  aiding  us 
in  appropriating  or  shutting  out  the  neighboring  premises. 
These  shrubs,  too,  form  a  diversified  and  highly  effective 
foliage.  These  are  not  to  be  planted  close  to  the  fence,  but 
with  room  to  grow.  But  this  would  be  a  stiff,  formal,  bor- 
der, if  confined  to  a  row  that  would  conceal  the  fence  or 
palings;  we  have,  therefore,  to  form  an  irregular  belt.  The 
planting  may  be  brought  out,  twenty,  thirty,  or  even  forty 
feet,  in  some  places,  in  a  bold  clump,  with  ornamental,  decid- 
uous trees  at  the  back,  and  in  the  centre,  consisting  of  labur- 
nums, thorns  of  different  kinds,  gueldres-roses,  chestnuts, 
acacias,  and  various  kinds  of  oaks,  planes,  and  other  orna- 
mental timber;  some  of  them  in  one  clump,  and  some  in 
another.  They  should  be  so  planned  in  the  planting  as  to 
widen  gradually  in  a  graceful  curve,  and  then  swelling  into 
a  bold  breast-work,  form  a  circle  of  noble  trees  and  shrubs, 


THE    AMKKK'AX    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  259 

but  fronted  with  evergreens  and  returning  inwards  a  con- 
siderable way  hack;  so  thai,  bj  commencing  another  curve 
twenty  feet  further,  which  should  be  sharper  or  shorter,  the 

planting  being  brought  out  nearly  as  far  as  the  first,  and  re- 
turning towards  the  boundary,  and,  as  it  were,  dyi.  g  off  to 
nothing,  there  would  appear  a  twenty-feet  opening,  which 
would  not  show  its  termination;  it  would  seem  to  lead  to 
other  and  more  extensive  space  than  really  exists,  and  as 
the  back  would  only  be  fence  high,  and  kept  so,  there  would 
no  boundary  be  seen. 

These  little  contrivances  in  planting  a  belt,  are  too  effec- 
tive to  be  neglected,  and  the  entire  stiffness  of  a  boundary 
would  be  lost  altogether.  We  greatly  admire  evergreens  on 
an  estate;  and  therefore,  in  the  foreground  of  these  swellings, 
as  we  may  call  them,  we  should  "be  lavish"  in  the  use  of  the 
arbutus,  various  firs,  arbor-vitass,  cedars,  rhododendrons, 
berberries,  hollies,  plain  and  variegated,  in  all  their  varieties, 
and  other  choice  subjects;  as  we  traversed  the  road,  then  we 
should  be  able  to  diversify  the  planting,  while  winter  would 
be  as  inviting  as  summer,  because  the  leading  feature — ever- 
green— would  hide  the  trunks  of  the  deciduous  trees,  which 
would  merely  tower  above  them,  aud  lighten  the  scene.  In 
the  curves  on  one  or  other  side  of  the  road,  we  should 
recommend  clumps  to  be  occupied  by  a  selection  of  one 
family  of  shrubs.  The  rhododendron  would  form  a  fine  clump, 
magnolias  a  second,  the  arbutus  a  third,  evergreen  bcrl ter- 
ries a  fourth,  hollies  a  fifth,  and  so  on  through  whole  fami- 
lies. Thus  the  foliage  would  be  diversified  in  the  different 
assemblages,  while  in  the  very  large  clumps,  we  might 
indulge  in  a  mixture  with  the  deciduous  trees  in  the  centre, 
and  various  evergreens  form  the  foreground.  We  need 
hardly  say,  that  these  things  must  be  planted  with  due  re- 
gard to  their  probable  growth,  and  not  be  planted  too 
thickly;  for  such  gardens  are  not  formed  for  two  or  three 
years,  but  for  future  ages.  This  is  the  reason  for  choosing 
subjects  that  will  grow  down  in  the  ground  as  well  as  high 


260  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

up;  for  the  front,  otherwise  in  a  few  years  would  leave  us 
their  bare  legs,  or  stumps,  which  would  not  be  very  accepta- 
ble. The  planting  therefore  requires,  first,  that  we  should 
know  the  nature  and  habit  of  all  the  things  we  plant;  and, 
secondly,  that  wTe  should  use  this  knowledge  in  planting 
the  tallest  in  the  places  wThere  they  wrould  be  most  appro- 
priate. 

As  we  approach  nearer  the  mansion,  our  choice  of  shrubs 
and  trees  may  be  more  select  ;  we  may  add  azaleas,  pyrus 
japonica,  andromedas,  and  other  choice  subjects,  because 
more  in  sight  and  more  likely  to  be  appreciated;  and  along 
every  footpath  we  should  be  doubly  careful  not  to  have  any- 
thing coarse.  We  should  not  indulge  much  in  deciduous 
plants,  unless  they  are  rich  in  foliage,  for  the  bloom  of  all  of 
them  is  of  short  duration,  if  we  except  the  bloom  of  a  few 
deciduous  magnolias.  We  have  said  nothing  of  roses,  but 
they  would  undoubtedly  be  comprised  in  the  shrubs  and 
trees,  as  we  come  nearer  to  the  house  and  by  the  sides  of 
the  path;  and  of  these  we  should  have  but  few  varieties, 
and  they  constant  bloomers.  There  might  be  a  dozen  kinds, 
perhaps,  that  would  almost  always  be  in  flower;  and  these 
wre  should  multiply  instead  of  seeking  a  large  collection.  If 
twenty  white  roses  and  twenty  red  were  always  in  flower,  in 
a  place  that  would  accommodate  forty,  it  would  be  infinitely 
better  than  forty  varieties,  of  which  thirty  would  be  out  of 
bloom  from  July  to  the  end  of  the  year.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  judicious  things  that  can  be  done,  to  aim  at  posses- 
sing numerous  kinds  of  anything  that  gives  us  flowers  for  a 
short  season,  instead  of  aiming  to  keep  up  a  feature  as  long 
as  we  can.  We  hardly  know  a  more  discouraging  fact  con- 
nected with  collections  of  roses,  than  the  common  result  of 
there  being  at  no  time,  but  a  month  of  summer,  half  a  dozen 
to  be  seen  in  flower. 


THK    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  2GI 


HILLS    AND    MOUND?. 

Too  often,  for  want  of  judicious  arrangement,  these  fea- 
tures are  sad  blots.  They  are  wanted  for  the  deposit  of  the 
soil  taken  from  the  excavations,  if  there  be  any  ornamental 
water,  and  as  a  receptacle  for  the  accumulated  rubbish  that 
cannot  be  used  elsewhere.  Natural  mounds  may  be  consid- 
erably improved,  but  how,  would  depend  on  their  extent. 
There  are  many  mounds  that  require  only  planting,  and  some 
prominent  object  among  the  trees  to  excite  attention  and 
grve  effect.  But  in  forming  a  mound,  there  must  be  an 
easy,  graceful  rise,  corresponding  with  a  hollow,  forming 
part  of  the  same  outline  ;  and,  as  has  been  well  observed  by 
old  writers,  lands  under  the  plough  for  many  years,  may  be 
found  with  the  hollows  greatly  changed  by  filling  up,  and 
mounds  lowered  by  the  loss  of  what  has  been  in  the  course 
of  time  ploughed  in  the  hollows.  The  greatest  care  will  be 
required  in  this  nice  operation,  which  also  involves  large  cost 
of  labor.  Let  there  be  no  attempt  at  a  mound  that  appears 
insignificant.  The  impression  that  a  lot  of  earth  has  been 
left,  that  should  have  been  cleared  away,  is  very  awkward. 
There  must  be  no  abrupt  rising  from  a  flat  surface,  as  is  very 
often  the  case  in  manufactured  mounds,  as  they  are  called 
in  the  dignified  language  of  the  guide  books.  Advantage 
must  be  taken  of  all  that  nature  has  done  ;  and  it  may  fre- 
quently be  improved  by  additions  and  changes — that  is,  by 
raising  it  in  one  place  with  all  the  spare  soil,  and  what  may 
be  taken  from  other  part-. 

The  top  of  a  mound  of  sufficient  extent  affords,  generally, 
a  fine  view  of  the  domain  all  round,  and  sometimes  of  adjoin- 
ing property.  In  planting  such  a  mound,  care  should  be 
taken,  as  the  path  winds  round,  to  stop  out  from  the  view 
any  object  that  is  common-place  or  disagreeable,  so  that  the 
best,  and  only  the  best  can  be  seen.  On  such  an  eminence 
is  the  place  for  sonic  building,  which   should  be  a  resting 


262  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

place  at  all  times,  and  an  agreeable  apartment  to  spend  a 
few  hours  in.  A  temple  of  some  kind  is  most  appropriate. 
It  may  be  an  imitation  of  a  ruined  building  ;  but  there  i> 
nothing  looks  more  beautiful,  when  half  concealed  by  trees 
than  pillars  supported  by  a  classic  fagade  or  some  well 
executed  imitation  of  ruins,  but  not  upon  a  small  scale.  It 
the  walls  are  not  three  feet  or  more  thick,  and  all  things  in 
proportion,  better  leave  it  for  trees  alone ;  for  there  is  noth- 
ing more  contemptible  than  the  ruins  of  a  nine-inch  brick  wall. 
The  least  appearance  of  diminutiveness  is  intolerable:  better 
have  a  square  lump  of  solid  ruin,  without  any  attempt  at 
elevation,  than  lath  and  plaster  castles,  that  will  scarcely 
stand  a  puff  of  air.  Let  everything  that  is  not  common  be 
on  a  gigantic  scale,  even  if  there  be  but  little  of  it.  A  temple, 
if  the  front  only  were  standing,  composed  of  four  pillars  and 
a  facade  ;  and  supposing  it  to  be  a  ruin,  the  remainder  only 
represented  by  a  corresponding  brick  column  and  stones, 
would  be  effective,  if  partly  concealed  by  thick  trees. 

The  planting  of  a  mound  requires  considerable  taste  and 
judgment.  We  must  treat  the  whole  as  antique.  It  must 
be  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  ground,  and  to  have  been 
preserved.  Modern  planting  of  rich  beauties  would  not  do 
for  such  a  scene.  Oak  would  be  an  appropriate  subject  foi 
such  a  Druid's  temple;  but  it  is  scarcely  inapproriate 
for  anything  supposed  to  originate  in  a  country  where  it  is 
indigenous.  Still  there  are  many  trees  that  would  be  more 
in  keeping  with  many  others.  All  this  has  to  be  kept  in 
mind  when  we  are  making  an  object  for  other  models.  It 
would  seem  greatly  out  of  keeping  to  plant  modern  shrubs 
as  the  adjuncts  to  an  antique  building;  and  it  should  be 
recollected  that,  if  we  could  make  a  feature  like  this  in  all 
respects  consistent,  a  great  point  would  be  gained;  and,  in 
the  absence  of  this,  in  attempting  anything  great,  we  had  bet- 
ter adopt  at  once  the  model  of  a  rustic  cottage.  The 
principal  aim  must  always  be,  not  to  attempt  more  than  can 
be  accomplished  well.     If  a  mound  be  simply  planted   and 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BJCULDVB.  2o3 

no  object  beyond  trees  be  attempted,  the  wood  should  be  so 
mixed  that  the  varied  colors  of  the  foliage,  whether  in  per- 
fection or  in  its  decline,  shall  blend  well;  or,  it  may  be 
that  the  holly,  cedar,  the  spreading-  kind  of  pines,  the  yew 
and  other  subjects  that  acquire  beauty  and  interest  by  age, 
may  lend  their  united  aid  in  forming  a  picturesque  object 
from*  all  parts  of  the  ground. 

But,  if  we  have  to  excavate  for  a  lake,  we  may  dispose  of 
the  earth  to  advantage  in  creating  a  rising  ground  at  one 
end  ot  it,  or  for  a  certain  distance  along  its  margin;  and  no 
place  is  so  fitting  for  rock-work;  and  if  this  be  attempted, 
much  depends  on  the  material  to  be  obtained  for  its  execu- 
tion. It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  hillocks,  or  small 
mounds,  in  different  parts  of  a  landscape,  cannot  be  approv- 
ed; and  if  this  be  the  natural  state  of  the  ground  to  any 
great  extent,  we  should  at  once  determine  whether  all  shall 
be  levelled,  and  the  excess  of  soil  taken  to  the  place  where 
one  upon  a  more  enlarged  scale  shall  be  formed,  or  the  super- 
abundant earth  should  be  taken  to  the  hollows,  to  fill  up 
and  assist  in  forming  something  like  an  even  surface.  If 
the  former,  there  must  be  some  taste  exercised  in  choosing 
the  site;  and  if  the  latter,  some  care  taken  to  lessen  the 
work  as  much  as  possible  by  judicious  disposition  of  the 
power  at  hand,  to  avoid  going  over  the  ground  twice  where 
once  would  do,  and  by  carrying  the  superfluous  soil  of  a  hil- 
lock to  the  nearest  place  that  may  be  available.  Something 
will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  subsoil.  It  may  be  discov- 
ered that  it  consists  of  gravel;  in  which  case,  all  the  top 
soil  must  be  saved  for  the  surface:  no  good  surface  soil 
should  be  buried.  It  may  be  stone  boulders,  or  mixed  with 
large  stones.  It  may  be  rocky;  in  such  a  case,  there  is  a 
temptation  to  form  rock-work  on  a  large  6cale,  and  the  ma- 
terial being  on  the  spot,  it  would  lie  romparitivcly  less  I  \- 
pensive. 

It  is  from  this  importance  of  the  subsoil  that  we  direct 
levelling  before  road-making,  because,  if  thesnbsoil  be  grati  I 


2G4  TIIE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

or  stones  of  large  size,  the  material  for  the  roacl  is  ready; 
and  if  the  stones  be  too  large,  they  must  be  broken.  Nobody 
in  fact  could  attempt  to  move,  in  any  of  the  operations,  with- 
out boring  and  digging,  to  see  where  or  how  he  is  to  find 
material  for  the  roads,  and  enable  him  to  determine  what 
features  of  the  ground  he  will  preserve,  and  what  he  will  de- 
stroy. Nearly  all  those  authors  who  treat  of  landscape  gar- 
dening, more  or  less  liken  it  to  the  art  of  the  painter,  who 
can  bring  upon  his  canvas  the  beauties  of  half-a-dozen  dif- 
ferent spots,  and  yet  make  them  all  harmonize.  But  the  ma- 
terial difference  is  in  the  execution.  The  painter  can  repre- 
sent a  mountain,  a  river,  a  waterfall,  a  cascade,  trees  of  five 
hundred  years  growth,  and  rocks  immovable;  but  the  land- 
scape gardener  is  limited  by  want  of  means,  and  cannot  per- 
form miracles. 

There  is  as  much  difference  between  the  painting  and  the 
reality  as  between  a  book  of  travels  and  the  journey.  The 
painter  has  no  limit;  his  poetical  imagination  may  run  riot 
in  his  great  works.  He  can  bring  the  Ganges  where  the 
Thames  only  runs,  and  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt  as  compan- 
ions for  the  parks  of  Savannah.  If  he  makes  his  scenery  har- 
monize and  forms  a  good  landscape,  it  is  all  that  is  required; 
and  the  landscape  gardener  can  do  the  same  thing  on  paper; 
but  in  practice  he  must  be  guided  by  the  scenery  he  has  to 
begin  upon  and  the  improvements  which  are  practicable. 
His  mountains  may  require  to  be  erected  by  cartloads;  and 
for  every  hogshead  of  water  his  lake  is  to  contain,  he  must 
remove  a  corresponding  quantity  of  solid  earth.  Louden 
suggests  the  study  of  landscape  paintings,  but  undoubtedly 
the  study  of  nature  must  be  the  gardener's  chief  means  of 
instruction.  He  can  form  in  his  mind  a  tolerably  correct 
idea  of  what  he  can  imitate,  wThen  he  looks  on  the  reality; 
but  if  he  once  allows  himself  to  be  beguiled  by  the  pencil  of 
the  artist,  he  may  be  deceived. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  walk  out  in  our  woods  and  for- 
ests, without  learning  something  practicable.     The  group- 


Tin:    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    i:rn.:  265 

inprs  of  tree?,  the  effect  of  broken  ground,  the  commanding 
views  from  hills,  and  the  rising  ground  from  valleys,  the 
turns  of  a  river,  now  gurgling  over  a  broad  bed  of  rough 
stones,  anon  rushing  in  a  narrow  stream  between  high  banks, 
and  then  swelling  out  into  a  broad  and  comparatively  smooth 
lake — are  all  so  many  lessons  in  the  art  of  landscape  gar- 
dening. But  in  nothing  do  we  find  more  instructive  hints 
than  in  the  various  groups  of  trees,  and  the  wooding  of 
various  mounds,  some  of  which  are  covered,  others  only 
patched,  but  all  more  or  less  ornamented  with  foliage  and 
verdure.  From  every  one  of  these  groups  and  mounds  we 
may  take  a  useful  lesson.  We  may  expand  our  ideas  of 
variety  and  propriety  according  as  the  scene  pleases  or 
annoys  us. 

Although  a  valley  is  almost  always  the  companion  of  a 
mound,  or  something  more,  we  must  treat  of  them  sepa- 
rately. 

VALLEYS    AND    LOW    GROUNDS. 

The  management  of  valleys  is  just  the  converse  of  mounds; 
but  we  have  to  aim  at  great  ones,  for  mere  hollows,  as  if 
the  earth  had  been  robbed  of  its  soil,  are  eye-sores,  and 
must  be  got  rid  of.  If,  as  is  not  uncommon,  there  is  a  hol- 
low or  valley  running  across  an  estate,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  it  could  be  improved  or  destroyed.  These  are  often 
wet  in  winter  and  almost  a  river  of  water;  and  if  so,  some 
means  must  be  provided  for  getting  rid  of  this  by  construct- 
ing drainage,  before  we  can  cither  fill  up  or  break  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  line,  if  it  be  so.  If  it  be  a  decided  hollow,  witii 
rising  ground  all  around  it,  the  bottom  must  be  the  recep- 
tacle for  all  the  rains  and  draining  of  the  surrounding  ground, 
and  part  of  the  year,  at  least,  partially  filled  with  water. 
This  must  be  improved,  or  got  rid  of;  an  unmeaning  swamp 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hollow  ought  not  to  be  tolerated.  Make 
it  water,  if  it  cannot  be  drained;  and  if  neither  can  be  doue, 
fill  it  up,  as  far  as  it  is  practical)!*',  with  stones  and  any 

12 


266  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

other  rough  material,  and  lessen,  the  hollow  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, by  raising  it  in  the  middle,  and  at  least  forming  a  shal- 
lower basin,  which  will  be  dry,  because  it  will  drain  into  the 
rough  stuff  as  fast  as  it  runs  down.  But,  presuming  it  to 
be  of  any  bold  and  formidable  extent,  at  once  make  a  piece 
of  water  there  by  puddling  it  well  as  far  as  the  water  can 
reach,  then  drain  all  the  surrouuding  land  into  it,  and  oth- 
erwise keep  up  the  supply;  give  some  consistency  of  form, 
plant  the  sides  appropriately,  construct  a  small  boat-house 
which  shall  be  ornamental,  and  plant  with  water-lilie9  and 
other  aquatic  plants,  convert  the  banks  or  sides,  at  least 
along  a  portion  of  its  margin,  into  rock-work,  or  adopt  any 
means  to  render  it  a  feature.  But  all  small  hollows  must 
be  filled  up;  there  is  nothing  more  objectionable  to  the  eye 
than  holes  or  lumps;  and  if  the  former  have  been  made  by 
excavating  for  gravel,  or  soil,  or  chalk,  and  present  by  their 
appearance  and  number  direct  obstacles  to  the  filling  up, 
there  is  nothing  left  for  us  but  to  plant  and  conceal  them; 
whereas  very  extensive  hollows,  large  enough  to  be  turned 
to  good  account,  may  be  made  very  interesting  features;  by 
breaking  their  perpendicular  sides  into  fragmental  ledger, 
and  rocky  projections,  by  supplying  them  with  appropriate 
plants,  by  reducing  the  bottom  to  some  picturesque  form, 
that  which  otherwise  would  be  a  blemish,  may  be  converted 
to  one  of  the  most  interesting  features.  It  is  impossible  to 
convey  lessons  to  meet  such  a  case,  because  there  are  no 
two  places  alike  in  everything. 

The  design  would  depend  altogether  on  the  depth,  the 
extent,  the  nature  of  the  material,  and  the  situation,  all  such 
places  have  roads  sloping  to  the  bottom,  which  ha\  e  been 
used  to  draw  out  the  material,  and  this  road  must  be  ren- 
dered picturesque  by  the  breaking  of  the  sides  and  planting 
them,  by  turning  if  straight,  by  widening  if  narrow.  There 
must  be  some  object  when  we  get  there — a  gipsy  hut,  a 
hermits  cave,  a  grotto,  a  fountain,  or  some  other  object,  if 
it  be  but  a  garden  seat,  or  the  tomb  of  a  favorite  dog.  or. 


the  aut.eican  i  "  nrn.DER.  2G7 

as  Pope  had,  in  his  underground  passage  which  communi- 
cated between  the  premises  on  either  side  the  road,  the  basts 
of  literary  and  bosom  friends.  Such  a  place  might  be  dev< 
to  some  such  purpose,  and  embrace  memorials  of  departed 
great  men.  But  all  this  is  fancy;  if  the  places  arc  of  BO 
size,  and  the  banks  or  sides  capable  of  forming  extensively 
picturesque  features,  there  would  be  no  occasion  for  any 
half  so  gloomy. 

Gravel  pits  are  of  the  same  nature  as  chalk  or  marl  pit-, 
or  stone  or  slate  quarries;  the  sides  are  frequently  as  ]  er- 
pendicular,  but  not  so  easily  to  manage;  for  they  can  be 
only  made  into  regular  shelves  or  can  even  slope,  whereas 
marl  can  be  formed  into  anything,  and  slate  or  stone  is  as 
convertible  as  chalk,  though  perhaps  not  so  easily  worked. 
The  planting  round  such  places,  to  conceal  them,  often  leads 
to  accidents  to  men  and  beasts;  and,  if  the  soil  be  very  dry^it 
is  a  question  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  work  away  the 
sides  into  the  bottom,  and  thus  convert  a  dangerous  hole 
Into  a  valley,  the  more  extended  the  better,  although  attend- 
ed with  great  labor;  all  these  things  most,  however,  be 
■  aken  into  consideration  before  we  commence,  for  indecision 
is  fatal.  Until  we  have  made  up  our  mind  what  to  do,  we 
ranst  do  nothing;  and  when  we  have  determined,  no  ordinary 
circumstance  should  turn  us  from  our  object:  not  bat  our 
coming  upon  springs,  or  any  other  undiscovered  change  of 
character  in  our  work,  may  induce,  nay,  force  us  to  alter  onr 
design;  but  we  must  then  reconsider,  with  the  now  circum- 
stances in  our  mind,  and  not  move  again  till  we  have  again 
decided.  We  may  have  to  form  a  lake,  or  a  rivulet,  or  fall, 
where  we  did  not  intend,  but  we  should  never  go  on  upoi 
speculation  as  to  what  we  shall  do  next. 

ROCK-WORK. 

We  have  already  mentioned  this  subject,  and  pointed  out 
«ome  cases,  where  its  adoption  would  In-  judicious.     IS  we 

could  command  ii,  we  should  have  water  at  the  foot,  that 


268  THE   AMERICAN    COTTAfiE    BUILDER 

there  may  be  a  seeming  consistency  in  the  picture,  but,  as 
this  may  not  always  be,  and  the  work  may  in  some  cases  be 
almost  done  to  our  hand,  we  must  not  lay  down  rules  tot 
arbitrary.  The  first  thing  to  impress  upon  the  mind,  is 
the  necessity  of  boldness,  roughness,  extent;  for  the  idea  of 
rocks  which  a  man  can  stride  over — and  this  may  often  be 
seen  at  public  nurseries — seems  to  us  to  be  the  height  of  ab- 
surdity: a  rock  should  be  noble;  if  a  man  of  taste  has  not 
to  look  up  at  it,  he  will  indeed  look  down  on  it ;  it  is  as  con- 
temptible as  a  doll's-house,  or  a  child's  plaything;  too  dimin- 
utive, to  show  what  it  is  meant  for,  it  looks  like  what  it  is 
not  meant  for,  and  nothing  can  be  more  paltry.  "We  have 
said  before,  that  rock-work  may  be  made  of  any  size,  from  a 
barrow  full  of  stones,  thrown  down  on  a  heap,  to  the  rock  of 
St.  Elba;  but  this  was  in  allusion  to  its  adaptation  to  plants. 
A  rock  made  of  two  bricks  will  do  to  nourish,  and  yet  to 
supply  the  necessary  drainage  to  a  plant,  as  well  as  if  they 
were  heaped  mountains  high;  but  in  reference  to  landscape 
gardening,  rock-work  should  be  twenty  feet  high  or  noth- 
ing; the  only  excuse  for  anything  lower  would  be  to  cover 
a  mound  with  fragments  of  bricks,  flints,  stones,  and  slates, 
and  each  appear  like  the  rock  merely  protruding  through, 
which,  when  covered  with  plants,  would  look  better  than 
any  paltry  elevation.  But  rock-work  is  one  of  those  fea- 
tures which  are  not  necessarily  part  of  a  landscape  garden- 
ing, and  unless  very  judiciously  managed,  and  of  a  respecta- 
ble extent  and  elevation,  is  far  better  omitted. 

The  temptations  to  construct  rock-work  are,  first,  the 
presence  of  abundance  of  appropriate  materials,  which  would 
be  in  the  way  if  not  appropriated;  second,  the  presence  of 
water,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  adjuncts;  thirdly, 
portions  of  highly  broken  mounds,  easily  convertible  into 
rocks,  so  far  as  the  surface  is  concerned;  fourthly,  the  pres- 
ence of  excavations  of  any  kind,  not  easily  convertible,  nor 
without  immense  labor  filled  up;  lastly,  the  presence  of  a 
deep  valley  which  is  to   be  retained.     Any  or  all   of  these 


TUE   AMERICAN    COTTAGB    BUILDER.  209 

circumstances,  naturally  tempt  one  to  introduce  rock-work; 
and,  in  constructing  this,  the  evils  to  be  avoided  are,  first, 
diminutivciiess,  than  which  nothing  is  so  destructive  in  the 
harmony  of  the  picture;  second,  smoothness,  which  detracts 
from  the  grandeur,  if  not  absolutely  from  the  natural  appear- 
ance of  the  rock;  thirdly,  choosing  a  bad  place;  fourthly, 
not  attending  to  the  surrounding,  or  at  least  the  adjoining 
scenery.  A  rock  built  up  in  the  middle  of  a  lawn  or  a  park, 
would  look  exceedingly  ridiculous  alone,  but  a  rocky  scene 
on  the  margin  of  a  lake,  might  look  perfectly  natural;  the 
place  should  be  a  gradual,  hollow,  slope  from  near  the 
ground  upwards,  the  outer  surface  being  made  with  chiefly 
very  large  fragments  of  stone,  or  material  in  imitatiou,  so 
as  to  form  a  bold,  rugged  face;  and  here  let  it  be  above  all 
things  remembered,  that  rocks  are  not  in  nature  formed  of 
lumps  of  glass,  bits  of  carved  stone,  broken  ornaments,  and 
such  like,  as  one  would  imagine  they  were  from  looking  at 
scores  of  garden  establishments;  they  are  either  chalk,  or 
granite,  or  quartz,  or  sandstone,  or  some  other  distinct  ma- 
terial, and  their  fragments  are  all  of  the  like  character, 
although  uot  two  may  be  of  the  same  size  or  likeness.  We 
have  seen  a  very  distinguished  amateur  roek-work,  which  has 
been  so  managed  as  to  evade  the  responsibilities  heaped  on 
us  by  the  second  commandment;  it  is  like  nothing  on  the 
earth  beneath,  nor  the  waters  under  the  earth;  patched  up 
as  children  make  grottos — not  those  with  oyster  shells,  for 
they  are  at  least  all  alike,  but  those  which  ingenious  youth 
ful  architects  make  with  glass  and  beads,  bits  of  coral,  and  so 
forth,  as  if — and  perhaps  it  is  so — the  value  of  the  building 
were  to  be  estimated  by  the  variety  of  materials  on  the  face 
of  it;  and  when  we  expressed  surprise,  we  were  directed  to  a 
dozen  more  in  the  city,  some  in  houses,  some  out  of  doors, 
but  all  looking  excessively  small,  ami  very  ridiw  lous.  This, 
therefore,  above  all  things,  should  be  avoided,  wad  we  ear- 
nestly beg  some  of  our  most  distinguished  amateurs  to  blow 
up  their  rock-work,  as  soon  as  they  wish   to  get  rid  of  the 


210  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

responsibility  of  enforcing  by  example  a  very  bad  taste, 
shown  under  the  auspices  of  very  fine  plants  and  very  good 
establishments.  The  plan  of  a  rock  requires  as  much  archi- 
tectural taste  as  the  plan  of  a  house;  let  the  crags  and  in- 
stertices  preserve  a  character  as  if  the  rock  were  real;  Deauty, 
as  some  people  would  call  it,  must  be  sacrificed  to  propriety. 
We  would  rather  see  rock-plants  growing  upon  the  imitative 
ruins  of  a  broken-down  castle,  than  upon  some  of  the  so-called 
rock-work  that  graces  very  high  places.  There  must  be  no 
outside  contrivances,  no  back  that  is  not  fit  to  be  seen,  no 
blemishes  to  be  hidden  by  plantations;  what  is  proper  in  one 
place  is  proper  in  another,  and  the  only  varieties  that  should 
be  seen  in  the  different  faces  of  the  rock,  should  be  only 
such  as  could  be  seen  in  nature.  Avoid  all  puny  rock-work ; 
countenance  nothing  but  that  which  will  be  creditable  to  size 
and  character.  In  excavations,  where  the  side  of  chalk-pits, 
or  stone,  or  slate-quarries,  are  almost  perpendicular,  these 
sides  must  in  part  be  broken  down  to  a  slope  of  crags,  leav- 
ing a  portion  upright  just  where  it  may  seem  to  aid  best  the 
general  effect;  and  the  falling  of  the  sides,  as  they  are  dis- 
turbed, will  almost  form  the  work  without  the  labor  of  a 
mason  or  the  architect;  at  all  events,  the  work  will  be 
greatly  facilitated. 

When  rock-work  is  constructed  by  the  side  of  water,  a 
path  must  be  made  at  the  foot,  or  there  must  be  some  stand- 
ing place,  unless  it  happens  that  the  water  is  so  constructed 
as  to  enable  it  to  be  well  seen  from  the  opposite  path. 
On  this  account  it  is  better  to  carry  out  a  sort  of  bay, 
round  two  thirds  of  which  the  rocks  can  be  so  constructed 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  rough  ampitheatre,  so  that  those  stand- 
ing at  the  eutrance,  or  near  it,  may  see  pretty  nearly  all 
without  going  nearer.  There  must  be  no  uniformity  in  the 
construction  of  the  rocks,  and  the  plants  selected  for  them 
must  not  be  the  diminutive  little  alpines  that  you  must  be 
close  to  before  you  can  see,  but  for  most  parts  the  bolder 
kinds,  which  are  a  feature  in  themselves,  and  such  of  the 


THE    AMERICAN    CUTTAUJi    LLll.UKi;.  271 

smaller  ones  as  are  covered  with  bloom;  and,  as  there  -will 
be  great  fissures  provided,  as  well  as  dry  and  shallow  i 
taeles  for  soil,  eveu  shrubs  and  trees  of  appropriate  kinds 
may  be  planted  and  grown  to  advantage.  The  tops  of  the 
rock-work  must  be  composed  of  bold  crags  here  and  there, 
and  the  outline  must  be  broken  by  gaps;  some  of  the  pi 
should  be  broad  on  the  upper  part,  and  form  wide  shei 
and  in  all  parts  the  features,  as  it  were,  should  be  large.  On 
the  land-side  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  natural 
construction,  and  the  lower  part,  near  the  ground,  may  be 
strewed  with  fragments,  among  which  plants  of  various  sorts 
should  be  growing.  The  crags  may  be  also  bold  on  the 
land-side,  and  the  plants  from  top  to  bottom  equally  choice 
and  varied.  If  a  mound  forms  part  of  the  height  on  the 
land-side,  it  is  perfectly  natural,  as  in  mountainous  places 
the  rocks  protrude  sometimes  half-way  up,  and  generally  in 
patches,  up  the  whole  face  of  the  mountain;  and  so  also  with 
smaller  hills  and  rising  grounds;  but  all  this  will  be  very 
trumpery  if  done  on  a  small  scale. 

With  these  general  remarks,  our  friends  who  are  desirous 
of  making  rock-work  will  be  able  to  set  about  their  work 
with  right  notions;  and  many  who  think  they  have  rock- 
work,  because  they  have  a  few  clinkers  and  flint-stones  piled 
one  above  the  other,  will  be  as  anxious  to  destroy  the  vesti- 
ges of  some  party's  simplicity.  If  we  have  not  the  means 
of  forming  proper  rock-work  upon  a  scale  of  sufficient  extent, 
the  next  best  plan  is  to  have  it  built  with  bricks,  but  still  to 
adopt  a  style  of  some  kiud;  but  always — for  we  cannot 
impress  this  upon  the  mind  too  deeply  nor  too  often — make 
it  large  enough  or  not  at  all.  An  artist  of  some  celebrity 
in  imitation  has  recently  completed  a  jumble  of  something 
between  ruins  and  rock-work,  and  we  hardly  know  what  to 
call  it;  we  cannot  call  it  rock-work,  because  there  is  nothing 
like  rock  about  it;  if  a  nine-inch  brick  building  had  been 
melting  away  instead  of  tumbling  down,  and  when  it  was 
aalf  melted  suddenly  congealed  again,  we  might,  by  a  stretch 


212  THE   AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDES. 

of  fancy,  consider  the  work  in  question  a  representation;  but 
it  has  melted  holes  in  the  walls,  and  these  are  furnished  with 
little  white  heads  that  seem  looking  out  with  astonishment 
at  the  change  which  has  been  wrought.  A  shell  or  two, 
here  and  there,  looks  as  if  somebody  had  been  pelting  the 
inmates  while  the  walls  were  in  a  state  of  fusion,  and  they 
had  stuck  there.  And  this,  be  it  mentioned,  had  been  exe- 
cuted by  an  artist  in  rock-work,  for  a  gentleman  who  held 
him  to  no  price,  but  wanted  good  rock-work.  The  heads 
and  shells  do  not  match  each  other:  if  the  head  of  old  Nep- 
tune had  been  looking  out  of  one  hole,  and  a  mermaid's  head, 
with  her  comb  and  glass,  had  figured  at  another,  they 
might  seem  at  home  among  the  shells;  but  to  see  Mer- 
cury and  Milton  at  the  holes  in  the  wall,  seems  perfectly 
outre.  We  have  digressed,  because  to  show  up  prevailing 
faults  is  no  bad  road  to  improvement;  and  we  have  not  told 
people  what  we  dislike,  without  also  telling  them  what  we 
approve.  We  may,  however,  be  wrong  after  all,  and  par- 
ticularly if,  as  we  are  told  by  some,  landscape  gardening  is 
subject  to  no  rules,  and  cannot  be  reconciled  to  any  princi. 
pies,  but  depends  entirely  on  the  taste  of  the  gardener;  for 
if  so,  all  we  have  done  yet  is  to  show  that  our  taste  differs 
very  materially  from  that  of  many  other  persons. 

OF    WATER,    AND    ITS    APPROPRIATION    OR    ADOPTION. 

If  the  ugliest  and  poorest  stream  of  water  runs  through 
grounds  that  are  to  be  laid  out  or  improved,  it  is  certainly 
convertible  to  ornamental  purposes.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
water  should  be  deep  because  it  is  wide,  or  that  the  supply 
should  be  bad  because  the  stream  is  narrow;  but  the  plan 
of  boring  for  water  is  now  reduced  to  such  a  system,  that  it 
is  only  a  question  of  expense;  and  where  a  supply  of  water 
is  short  or  doubtful,  it  is  better  at  once  to  provide  it.  But 
many  streams,  however  small,  may  be  made  ornamental  by 
first  opening  the  bed  of  the  water,  or  rather  the  chaunel,  to 
a  proper  ornamental  figure,  widening  it  where  desirable,  and 


R  U  R    \   I.     II  <)  M  i:    -  N  >>      I 


pr.w  of  sF.rovn  story.     [See  p.  2'23.]     j — 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BBILJER.  273 

so  adapting  the  outline  to  the  place  and  plan  of  the  work  as 
to  secure  a  picturesque  and  natural  appearance.  But  it  may 
be,  and  generally  is  the  case,  with  streams  that  are  insignifi- 
cant in  appearance,  that  it  arises  from  the  too  rapid  descent 
of  the  channel.  In  this  case,  begin  by  damming  up  the  lower 
part,  where  it  leaves  the  grouud,  high  enough  to  fill  up  to 
the  banks  there;  and  as  that  may  not  fill  it,  a  long  way  back 
other  dams  must  be  placed  across  higher  up,  to  fill  it  there, 
and  so  on,  that  it  may  form  a  series  of  smooth  water  and 
falls,  entirely  through  the  ground.  All  these  falls  may  be 
made  ornamental;  that  is,  a  bed  of  stones  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  dam  may  be  piled  up  against  it,  and  made  perfectly 
solid,  that  the  water,  little  as  it  may  be,  shall  run  over  the 
surface,  and  not  be  lost  to  appearance  by  sinking  into  them. 
They  can  also  be  made  rugged,  and  portions  of  them  reach 
above  the  dam  to  drive  the  little  water  there  is  through  less 
openings.  Nor  need  the  stones  be  in  a  line  across  the  river; 
they  may  imitate  a  natural  barrier;  but  it  need  not  be  men- 
tioned, perhaps,  that  whatever  width  the  bed  of  the  river  be 
made,  so  that  the  bottom  be  puddled  and  the  sides  made  to 
retain  water,  the  stream  will  fill  it,  and  then  allowing  for 
increased  evaporation  and  waste,  the  supply  will  go  over  at 
the  bottom;  so  that  a  very  inconsiderable  rivulet  will  be 
readily  converted  to  a  respectable  river,  and  perhaps  may 
be  aided  very  much  by  tile-drains  from  the  higher  grounds, 
run  diagonally  into  the  stream;  or  if  more  water  be  abso- 
lutely necessary,  we  must  resort  to  boring. 

All  rivers  are  capable  of  improvement,  or  the  grounds 
that  immediately  join  may  be  so  managed  as  to  greatly  im- 
prove the  appearance.  The  most  awkward  to  manage  are 
those  whose  bed  lies  very  much  lower  than  the  banks.  Here 
we  must  resort  to  damming  up  the  water  as  before  mentioned, 
but  presuming  there  is  a  good  supply,  it  will  make  a  respect- 
able cascade  at  some — the  best  adapted — part  of  the  grouud 
towards  the  lower  end  of  the  stream.  But  it  may  be  that 
the  river  turns  some  mills,  and  that  there  are  other  obsta- 

12* 


2H  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

cles  to  the  damming  up  of  the  water;  in  this  case  the  ground 
must  be  lowered  near  the  sides  of  the  river  to  the  water's 
edge,  and  be  gradually  sloped  off  to  make  an  easy  sweep 
down  to  the  water,  that  the  view  may  not  be  hidden  by  the 
banks,  which  would  naturally  conceal  the  river  from  sight 
at  a  very  small  distance.  In  this  case  the  slope  ought  to 
be  carried  to  a  considerable  distance,  say  twenty  yards, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  avoid  all  appearance  of  abruptness,  and 
show  the  whole  width  of  the  stream  a  long  way  before  we 
arrive  at  it. 

It  is  quite  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  water  is  too  great 
a  treasure  in  a  good  domain  to  be  lost  for  want  of  some  care 
and  expense,  and  that  all  the  means  of  preservation  would 
be  used  that  could  well  be  applied.  Now,  presuming  the 
water,  as  in  the  first  instance,  to  be  scanty,  every  little  that 
could  be  returned  to  the  head  of  the  river  would  be  an 
object.  By  applying  the  water-ram  (an  ancient  implement, 
but  now  rapidly  coming  into  use,)  at  the  outer  fall,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  could  be  sent  back  through  pipes  some 
hundred  feet;  and  as  the  instrument  is  self-acting,  the  only 
expense  is  the  first,  and  the  greater  the  fall  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  stream,  the  more  powerful  and  effective  will  be  the 
ram.  We  have  seen  this  simple  instrument  the  means  of 
forcing  water  to  the  top  of  a  house,  to  supply  cisterns  for  all 
purposes  of  the  establishment. 

But  it  may  be  that  there  is  no  water,  and  that  we  have 
to  form  an  ornamental  lake.  Let  the  size  be  in  proportion 
to  the  work  all  around  it,  not  a  mere  duck  pond,  but  more 
rather  than  less  than  can  be  afforded  for  the  space  under 
management,  for  nothing  can  be  more  ornamental.  We 
remember  once  being  betrayed  into  making  a  mere  pond  for 
gold  fish,  and  unfortunately  instead  of  its  being  among  the 
avowedly  formal  part  of  the  garden,  it  was  placed  on  the 
lawn,  which  was  laid  out  with  its  roads  and  plantations  in 
true  landscape  style.  As  it  was  a  brick  and  cement  affair, 
thirty  feet  by  fifteen,  there  was  no  moving  it;  but  we  were 


THE    AMERICAS    COTTAGE    BOUDSR.  270 

soon  determined  to  plant  it  out  as  a  nuisance,  instead  of 
pointing  it  out  as  a  beauty.  Such  things  are  not  for  land- 
scape gardens;  they  are  for  parterres  in  the  neighborhood 
of  architectural  beauties,  and  not  for  rural  gardening. 
Nothing  could  be  more  paltry,  nor  was  there  anything  about 
the  place  of  which  we  were  so  much  ashamed.  Let  your 
lake  be  of  any  odd  shape,  or  no  shape,  if  you  please;  not 
with  angles  and  corners,  but  such  outlines  as  nature  gives 
us  in  her  ordinary  works.  Study  to  avoid  formality,  and 
make  the  excavation  from  two  feet  on  the  sides  to  six,  or 
say  five  feet  in  the  middle.  If  you  come  upon  soft  places, 
go  deeper  there,  in  the  reasonable  hope  of  coming  to  springs ; 
for  a  supply  of  water  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  affair. 
According  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  so  must  you  deter- 
mine to  puddle  the  bottom  and  sides,  or  otherwise.  If  you 
are  digging  in  clay,  it  will  retain  the  water;  but  if  in  gravel 
or  sand,  or  loose  soil,  the  entire  bottom  as  well  as  sides  will 
have  to  be  puddled,  unless  springs  come  up  through  the 
sand,  and  fill  your  pond.  But  it  frequently  happens  that 
springs  will  fill  your  pond  up  to  a  certain  part,  and  that  the 
loose  ground  takes  it  off  there — in  short,  that  no  supply  will 
keep  it  above  that  mark,  which  may  be  a  good  deal  too  low 
for  appearance  or  use.  Nothing  but  puddling  can  avail  us 
in  that  case;  and  puddling  may  be  explained  to  be  the  mak- 
ing of  a  lining  with  well-kneaded  clay.  If  we  are  obliged 
to  supply  the  water  from  other  means,  it  is  but  to  confine 
the  depth  to  about  four  or  five  feet  at  the  deepest  part,  and 
two  feet  on  the  sides,  but  of  the  saucer  form  of  hollow,  and 
then  putting  well-kneaded  clay  all  over  it,  and  setting  men 
with  rammers  to  beat  it,  or  rather  run  it  out  into  au  equal 
bottom  of  about  nine  inches  to  a  foot  in  thickness;  for  well- 
worked  clay  is  as  impervious  to  water  as  if  it  were  baked. 
This  puddling  is  to  be  worked  up  the  side  to  the  very  edge, 
and  it  will  then  retain  all  the  water  that  is  put  into  it, 
except  what  goes  off  by  evaporation.  As,  however,  lakes 
jiust  be  made  at  the  lowest  part  of  a  domain,  and   all  the 


216  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

land  around  may  be  drained  into  it,  we  are  seldom  compelled 
to  puddle  any  more  than  the  sides,  for  a  few  feet  in,  all 
round.  We  should  never  choose  an  estate  without  water, 
and  we  should  lay  out  the  whole  of  it,  even  choosing  the  site 
for  the  house  with  some  reference  to  a  good  view  of  a  part, 
if  not  the  whole  of  it,  though  it  would  enter  into  our  plan  to 
conceal  it  here  and  there  by  planting,  to  break  the  line  of 
the  edges  of  it;  for  we  can  conceive  of  nothing  more  naked 
than  water  without  wood. 

FOUNTAINS. 

These  belong  to  the  formal  portion  of  gardening,  but  the 
making  of  them  may  be  treated  of  in  this  place  as  part  of 
the  management  of  water.  We  need  hardly  inform  the  ama- 
teur gardener,  that  neither  fountains  nor  falls  can  be  pro- 
duced without  a  head  of  water;  and  this  must  be  either  sup- 
plied by  the  nature  of  the  place,  or  by  force-pumps.  If  we 
possess  the  head  of  water  by  means  of  springs  on  high 
ground,  the  construction  of  the  fountain  is  simply  by  means 
of  a  pipe  to  convey  the  water  to  the  lower  ground,  where 
the  jet  of  the  fountain  is  placed;  and  here  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  hint,  that  the  lower  the  design  is  formed — that  is, 
the  nearer  it  is  to  the  water — the  higher  it  will  play.  But 
if  we  have  to  form  the  head  for  the  purpose  of  the  fountain, 
the  nearer  it  is  to  the  work  it  has  to  do,  the  better  it  will 
be  done.  Grenerallv,  it  is  by  means  of  a  lara;e  tank;  and  the 
water  is  pumped  up  by  horse,  or  manual,  or  steam-power, 
from  this  tank,  which  should  be  concealed,  or  be  placed  on 
the  top  of  some  of  the  offices,  so  as  to  be  a  part  as  it  were 
of  the  building;  the  same  head  of  water  may  be  made  to 
supply  the  mansion.  Where  the  water  is  supplied  by  power, 
the  fountains  need  not  always  be  playing;  but,  with  a  natu- 
ral head  of  water,  it  is  of  little  or  no  consequence.  Foun- 
tains are  as  various  in  their  designs  as  any  other  object  in  a 
garden.  They  may  be  made  to  play  in  a  circular  basin 
where  gold  and  silver  fish  may  be  seen  sporting,  or  they  may 


Tl!i:    AUi'.KH'AN    COTTAGE    BOILDBB.  277 

-be  constructed  so  as  to  spirt  or  run  from  grotesque  figures. 
Lions'  beads  vomiting  water  are  common;  but  the  most 
unmeaning  and  senseless  subjects  are  as  common  as  any- 
thing; thus,  a  figure  spouting  up  the  water  from  a  horn — one 
would  think  the  imagination  poor  indeed  that  could  not 
find  a  better  subject.  A  dolphin,  or  any  other  water  mon- 
ster, spouting  up  water  after  the  fashion  of  a  whale,  and 
whose  figure  would  be  half  out  and  half  in  the  water,  would 
seem  more  natural  and  it  would  have  the  advantage  of  being 
closer  to  the  power.  For  be  it  remembered,  that  if  water 
will  rise  ten  feet,  every  foot  that  is  taken  away  by  the  pe- 
destal and  figure  has  to  be  deducted  from  the  jet.  There- 
fore anything  close  to  the  water's  surface  will  give  us  all  the 
power  in  the  jet.  Boring  for  water  in  some  places  forms  a 
powerful  fountain.  The  gutta  percha  tubing  is  now  prefer- 
red to  lead,  and  can  be  used  at  any  length  and  for  any  period 
underground  without  corroding. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

We  have  shown,  we  believe,  pretty  clearly,  that,  without 
questioning  whether  formal  or  landscape  gardening  is  the 
better,  we  cannot  tolerate  a  mixture.  In  landscape  garden- 
ing there  must  be  no  straight  lines,  whether  it  be  water,  or 
grass,  or  roads,  or  paths.  There  must  be  nothing  in  rows 
or  straight  lines;  whatever  is  to  be  formal  or  contrary  to 
nature  must  be  isolated,  and  not  form  part  of  the  general 
BCene.  We  have  no  objections  to  urge  against  geometrieal 
figures  and  fancy,  uniform  flower  beds,  but  they  must  be  in 
a  garden  shut  out  from  the  landscape;  and,  indeed,  so  far  do 
we  approve  of  them  in  their  places,  that  we  think  nothing 
so  good  in  a  proper  flower  garden,  of  which  we  have  yet  to 
speak,  or  rather  write.  The  eonservatory  should,  if  possible, 
be  so  contrived  as  to  be  entered  from  the  house,  and  have 
its  outlet  iu  the  flower  garden;  but  we  would  have  neither 
■seen  from  the  landscape.  Let  private  walks,  into  which  the 
passer-by  ou  the  landscape  cannot  sec  more  than  a  few  feet, 


278  THE    AMERICAN    COTT..GE    BUILDER, 

lead  to  the  beds  of  flowers  and  fanciful  gravel  walks.  Let 
there  be  terraces,  statues,  vases,  and  all  kinds  of  garden 
ornaments,  if  you  will,  to  be  seen  when  we  arrive,  but  let  it 
burst  on  our  view  as  we  emerge  from  our  branch  walk.  Let 
there  be  circular,  oval,  square,  octagon,  or  oblong  houses; 
fountains,  and  fancy  flower-pots,  all  very  delightful  in  their 
places,  but  keep  them  in  their  places.  No  mixture  can  be 
consistent  with  good  taste;  at  least,  such  is  the  impression 
which  we  have,  and  are  likely  to  keep.  We  only  want 
things  called  by  their  right  names.  A  landscape  cannot  be 
a  geometrical  figure ;  and  for  an  avowedly  artificial  garden, 
order  and  uniformity  can  alone  be  tolerated. 

FORMAL    GARDENING. 

This,  in  contradistinction  to  landscape  gardening,  is  every 
way  artificial.  Every  bed,  border,  clump,  or  gravel-walk, 
is  formed  according  to  some  order  or  regularity  of  figure, 
and  all  is  uniform.  It  applies  to  those  parts  of  a  garden 
which  are  devoted  to  flowers,  be  they  where  they  may,  and  in 
most  places  some  portion  near  the  mansion,  or  the  conserva- 
tory, or  the  summer-house,  and  is  thoroughly  distinct  from 
the  landscape,  if  there  be  one;  or  it  may  be  that  the  whole 
of  a  domain  is  thus  artificially  planned — straight  avenues  of 
trees,  straight  roads,  straight  canals,  all  are  in  keeping  with 
each  other,  and  order  and  regularity,  and  even  uniformity 
is  preserved  throughout.  The  leading  features  in  formal 
gardening  are  terraces,  statues,  fountains,  avenues  of  trees, 
bold  but  straight  walks  aud  roads,  and  canals  with  straight 
banks ;  and  circular  pieces  of  water,  formal  cascades  as  if 
the  water  were  running  down  a  flight  of  steps;  angles, 
circles,  squares,  and  straight  lines,  proclaim,  at  every  step 
we  take,  that  the  work  has  been  accomplished  by  the 
hand  of  man.  The  ordinary  architect  would  succeed  in  lay- 
ing down  a  plan  quite  as  well  as  the  gardener;  and  there  is 
no  doubt  but  the  builder  of  a  mansion  would  carry  out  ideas 
suited  to  the  elevation  as  well  as  any  professional  designer 


THE    A31EBICAX    C0TTAG2    .;i  il.HtK.  279 

of  garden  plans.     All  tilings  appertaining  to  the  plan  must 
be  adopted  according  to  the  architectural  taste  displayed  on 
the  building.     Terrace-walks  should  be  parallel  to  the  front 
or  sides.    Here  expanse  is  exhibited  by  the  length  of  walks, 
roads,  and  avenues,  and  these  must  be  upon  a  scale  suited  to 
the  elevation  of  the  building.     The  ornaments  to  terrace- 
walks  must  be  in  keeping  with  the  style  of  architecture. 
"Where  there  is  an  immense  long   walk,  and  space  on  each 
side,  there  should  be  circles  every  forty,  or  fifty,  or  eighty 
yards,  the  segments  of  which,  on  both  sides,  should  be  orna- 
mented with  seats,  and  the  centre  may  be  a  basin  for  gold 
fish,  a  fountain,  a  temple,  or  some  other  device,  not  suffi- 
cient to  interrupt  a  view  of  the  entire  length,  but  enough  to 
break  the  monotouy.     The  planting  on  either  side  should  be 
perfectly  uniform;  whatever  shaped  bed,  whatever  kind  of 
tree  or  shrub  may  be  placed  ou  one  side,  should  be  also 
placed  on  the  other,  and  there  is  no  rule  for  the  construction 
of  the  edging.     Iu  formal  gardening  it  may  be  stone,  or  box 
or  grass;  so  that  it  be  uniform,  it  matters  not  what.    Rock- 
work,  in  this  kind  of  gardening,  may  be  as  formal  as  arou^h 
cone  or  pyramid,  so  it  be  in   uniform  situation.      Here  it 
would  be  as  bad  taste  to  see  water  of  irregular  shape,  as  it 
tvould  to  see  a  straight  line  in  a  landscape;  therefore,  unless 
a  piece  of  water  be  of  too  large  a  space  to  see  the  extent,  or 
observe  the  figure,  it  must  be  altered  to  round,  or  oval,  or 
square,  or  half-circle,  or  some  regular  figure  corresponding 
with  the  scenery  adjoining.     Walks  and  roads  should  lead 
to  some  object.     The  most  simple  and  appropriate  perhaps 
is  a  gate  or  entrance;  and  so  necessary  is  this,  that  we  have 
abundant  instances  of  costly,  but  useless  gates  at  the  ends 
of  avenues,  which  gates  are  necessary  as  ornameuts,  though 
they  may  never  be  opened;  but  there  is  a  good  reason  for 
the  adoption  of  gates — they  afford  an  opportunity  of  dis- 
playing architectural  taste;  and  we  may  find  another  good 
m  in  the  idea  they  convey  of  space.     If  the  gates  had  a 
solid  brick  wall  behind  them,,  or  were  not  even  made  to  open, 


280  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

they  give  one  an  idea  that  there  is  something  beyond,  where 
as  a  temple  appears  to  be  a  finish.  It  is  impossible  to  set 
bounds  to  the  fancy  in  working  out  figures  for  beds  on  each 
side  a  walk  or  road;  two  or  three  points  must,  however,  be 
kept  in  view.  Angles  must  not  be  too  small;  the  great 
fault  of  many  formal  gardens  is  that  figures  are  attempted 
on  too  elaborate  a  scale;  they  look  well  enough  in  theory, 
very  pretty  when  empty,  because  we  can  see  every  little 
turn  and  corner  in  the  figure,  but  put  plants  in  only  six 
inches  high,  and  the  figure  is  lost.  Let  all  figures  be  bold 
simple,  and  easily  seen  when  planted.  There  is  no  mistake 
in  a  circle,  or  half  circle,  or  square,  or  oblong;  but  what 
sense  would  there  be  in  an  octagon?  the  straight  angles 
would  be  lost  when  the  plants  grew,  or  when  we  were  at  a 
little  distance.  In  like  manner,  any  very  sharp  angle  would 
be  lost  as  soon  as  the  plants  grew  up  a  little.  Whatever, 
therefore,  be  the  design,  some  care  must  be  taken  to  use  no 
figure  that  could  not  be  seen  to  advantage,  and  always  to 
adapt  it  to  the  height  of  the  plants  to  be  grown  there.  The 
road  up  to  the  entrance  of  a  mansion  should  be  the  segment 
of  a  circle,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  or  the  entire  road 
from  the  entrance  might  be  a  whole  circle;  but  the  back- 
front  of  the  house  is  the  place  to  display  taste  in  the  terrace 
walk.  The  garden  at  the  back  may  have  an  entire  walk  of 
four  straight  sides  going  completely  about  the  space,  or  at 
least  so  nearly  as  brings  us  within  sight  of  the  boundaries; 
or  there  may  be  a  square  space  enclosed  as  it  were  by  four 
straight  walks,  or  the  entire  space  may  be  compressed  by  a 
terrace  walk  the  whole  width,  parallel  with  the  back-front, 
and  other  walks  uniformly  diverging  to  the  extent  of  length, 
with  avenues  of  trees  or  shrubs,  and  terminating  with  some 
object;  and  in  these  avenues  there  may  be  statues,  fount- 
ains, sun-dials,  or  whatever  other  devices  may  please  the 
taste.  There  should,  however,  be  grass,  or  flower-borders, 
or  both,  on  each  side  these  walks,  planned  uniformly  and 
planted  uniformly.     There  can  be  no  set  rules  for  the  laying 


TUK    AMERICAN    COTTAGK    BUILBBB,  --1 

out  of  a  formal  garden;  but  there  are  some  points  worth 
considering.     If,  for  instance,  we  have  an  avenue  of  tr 
in  a  warden,  it  would  lje  most  desirable  if  we  could  make  an 
opening  through  all  the   wood  in  the  adjoining  premises, 
because  then  the  effect  would  be  so  much  more  grand. 

Whenever  a  walk  is  very  long,  there  should  be  break) 
where  seats  could  be  placed.  If  we  have  to  put  a  gate  at 
the  end  of  a  walk,  to  give  an  idea  of  space,  let  the  walk  ter- 
minate twenty  yards  before  we  reach  the  end  of  the  ground?, 
and  let  a  cross  walk  appear  on  the  other  side  of  the  gate; 
or,  if  it  be  preferred,  let  all  beyond  the  gate  be  lawn  or 
grass,  and  planting  conceal  the  boundary,  whether  it  oe 
palings  or  wall.  In  formal  gardening  there  is  frequently 
used  what  is  called  a  ha-ha  fence,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
prevent  a  view  from  being  interrupted  by  a  wall  or  common 
fence;  this  is  made  by  digging  a  trench  five  or  uix  feet  deep, 
and  buildiug  a  wall  up  to  the  surface  only,  and  outside  the 
wall  the  earth  is  removed  altogether  in  a  sloping  direction, 
so  that  on  the  outside  any  one  may  walk  down  the  slope  to 
the  foot  of  the  wall,  and  there  he  is  as  far  from  getting  in  as 
he  would  be  if  the  wall  were  on  the  surface,  and  as  much 
above  him.  By  means  of  this  ha-ha  fence  we  are  enabled  to 
appropriate  the  land  beyond  the  fence  to  cattle,  or  to  any 
other  purpose,  without  having  the  space  confined,  or  the 
view  interrupted  by  a  wall  above  the  surface. 

In  planting  these  formal  gardens,  the  greatest  care  must 
be  taken  to  plant  such  trees  and  shrubs  as  are  adapted  to 
keep  up  a  uniform  growth,  because,  unlike  the  landscape, 
where  the  difference  of  growth  and  foliage,  however  uncouth 
that  growth  may  be,  in  some  cases  rather  heightens  the  natu- 
ral beauties  of  wood,  the  formal  garden  wants  uniform 
growth;  a  mixture  of  wood,  unless  it  be  a  uniform  mixture, 
would  destroy  the  harmony  and  keeping  of  the  place — a 
clump  of  shrubs  on  one  Bide  must  be  opposed  by  a  like  clump 
on  the  other;  rhododendrons  should  not  only  be  pui  oppo- 
site rhododendrons,  but  the  like  kind  of  rhododendrons;  and, 


282 


THE    AMLK1CAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


in  the  management  of  these  uniform  clumps,  the  knife  musl 
restrain  the  too  vigorous  growth  of  any  that  by  exhuberant 
shoots  bid  fair  to  spoil  the  uniformity.     After  things  have 
attained  a  tolerable  size,  and  got  well  hold  of  the  ground, 
these  will  not  vary  much.     The  clumps  of  flowers,  or  rather 
the  flower-beds,  must  not  only  be  uniform,  but  they  must  be 
furnished  in  a  uniform  manner.     If  there  be  a  round  bed  on 
each  side,  they  must  be  filled  with  flowers.of  the  same  kind 
and   color.      Nine-tenths  of  the  geometrical  gardens  are 
spoiled  in  the  planting;  for,  even  in  the  instructions  which 
some  flower  gardeners  have  published,  there  is  a  direction 
what  to  grow  in  each  compartment,  without   the  slightest 
attention  to  uniformity  of  color;  and  we  have  recently  been 
through  a  garden  where  the  beds  are  uniform  and  not  even 
the  colors  alike.      This  borders  upon  downright  ignorance 
of  principle,  because  if  we  desire  uniformity — which  we  show 
we  do  by  making  the  beds  uniform — it  should  be  carried  out 
by  planting  the  same  things  in  all  corresponding  beds.     If, 
for  instance,  we  have  a  round  bed  on  each  side  of  a  path, 
and  all  other  things  are  in  uniform  order,  what  sense  is  there 
in  putting  a  patch  of  blue  flowers  on  one  side  and  white  on 
the  other  ? 

In  planning  geometrical  gardens,  the  compasses  will  do 
all  we  want,  but  in  uniform  gardens  we  may  make  all  sorts 
of  strange  figures.  We  have  seen  ideas  taken  for  patterns 
by  first  doubling  a  piece  of  writing  paper,  then  with  a  pen 
scribble  any  kind  of  figure  on  one  half  the  paper,  and  when 
it  is  wet,  close  the  other  half  on  it — the  figure  will  be  doub- 
led, and  of  course  must  be  perfectly  uniform.  This  is  a  very 
simple  thing,  but  well  worth  the  attention  of  everybody  who 
has  to  do  with  uniform  patterns.  But  formal  gardening  is 
not  confined  to  great  places;  there  is  scarcely  a  suburb  of  a 
town  in  England  but  contains  houses  with  gardens  on  too 
6mall  a  scale  to  be  anything  but  uniform.  A  square  space 
in  front,  with  a  half-circle  for  a  carriage  sweep,  is  the  proper 
description  of  thousands  of  villa  gardens.     But  formal  gar- 


Til:.    .\M.  .:!    AN    UOn'AGK    BULLDEB.  283 

dens  especially  belong  to  the  whole  race  of  florist.-,  that  is 
to  say,  the  cultivators  of  florists'  flowers;  and  as  this  con- 
cerns thousands,  we  will  take  from  the  iir.-t  the  laying  out 
of  a  florist's  garden,  and  the  gardening  required  to  keep  up 
a  good  stock  of  flori.-t.'  fluwers;  fur  there  is  not  anything  iu 
the  whole  rotiue  of  gardeuiug  that  requires  more  care,  or 
that  until  very  recently  was  so  little  understood.     Formal 
gardening  especially  applies  to  the  cultivation  of  those  sub- 
jects which  have  been  improved  on,  those  breeds  which  are 
grown  in  collection  under  name.  And,  first,  let  us  look  to  the 
requirement  of  the  florist.    He  must  grow  everything  in  beds 
or  pots.     Every  individual  plant  has  its  name,  and  is  known 
when  iu  flower  to  the  true  florist  as  well  as  a  man  would  be. 
Most  of  these  favorites  are  cultivated  in  beds.     Pinks,  pan- 
sies,  tulips,  ranunculuses,  anemones,  verbenas,   and  many 
others,  are  uniformly  cultivated  in  beds  four  feet  wide.     A 
true  florist's  garden,  therefore,  is  best  laid  out  in  beds  right 
and  left  of  a  centre  walk;  and  if  he  wishes  to  be  neat,  he 
will  have  two-feet  wide  paths  betweeu,  so  that  he  can  turn 
right  and  left  anywhere,  and  work  among  his  favorites  with- 
out treading  on  borders.     The  centre  walk  ought  to  be  six 
feet  wide,  and  the  beds,  which  should  be  laid  out  at  right 
angles  on  both  sides,  must  be  four,  the  paths  between  eigh- 
teen inches  at  the  least,  but  two  feet  if  the  ground  can  be 
spared.    The  length  of  the  beds  should  be  about  twenty-five 
to  thirty  feet  in  the  clear.      Now,  as  four  feet  on  the  path 
end  of  the  bed  should  be  devoted  to  the  path,  that  is  to  say, 
to  plants  which  should  form  a  border  of  flowers  on  each  side, 
although  in  reality  intersected  by  the  narrow  side-paths, 
they  would  require  to  be  four  feet  longer  on  that  account: 
but  the  length  is  necessarily  governed  by  his  space;  it  may 
be  that  he  has  not  euough  ground  to  make  such  length  of 
beds,  therefore  the  length  we  have  mentioned  has  reference 
rather  to  large  than  small  gardens;  fur  we  follow  up  the 
subject  by  mentioning,  that  if  the  width  of  the  ground  is 
considerably  greater  than  will  make  such  beds  as  we  men- 


2S4  THE    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

tion,  we  would  have  other  paths  parallel  with  the  middle 
one,  so  as  to  make  two  beds  in  width  on  each  side  instead 
of  one.  Suppose  the  ground  to  be  anything  under  eighty 
feet  wide,  we  would  have  a  three-feet  wide  path  down  each 
side,  within  three  feet  of  the  boundary,  so  as  to  form  a  three- 
feet  wide  border  all  round  the  garden;  then  a  centre  walk 
of  four  to  six  feet,  and  paths  of  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet 
right  and  left,  so  as  to  lay  the  whole  out  into  four-feet  beds, 
the  length  which  the  grouud  would  allow.  For  instance,  if 
the  ground  be  eighty  feet  wide,  the  six  feet  for  the  middle 
path,  the  six  feet  for  the  borders,  and  the  eight  feet  for  the 
two  four-feet  side-paths  would  occupy  twenty  feet  of  the 
width,  and  leave  all  the  beds  thirty  feet  long;  and  by  occu- 
pying the  four,  or  say  five  feet  with  plants,  to  give  effect  to 
both  sides  of  the  centre  path,  twenty  five  feet  length  of  bed 
would  be  left  for  florists'  flowers. 

If  the  ground  were  considerably  less  than  this,  the  beds 
would  be  proportionably  shorter,  and  one  would  feel  inclined 
to  lessen  the  width  of  the  paths  to  make  the  most  of  the 
ground.  In  these  beds  most  of  the  subjects  would  be  planted 
six  inches  apart,  and  therefore  seven  rows  in  a  bed  taken 
lengthwise— although  florists  count  the  rows  the  other  way 
always,  and  say  so  many  rows  seven  in  a  row.  This  is  the 
most  compact  width  for  all  kinds  of  operation.  We  can 
reach  two  feet  across  without  inconvenience,  to  weed,  plant, 
prune,  or  do  anything  else  to  whatever  the  bed  contains 
These  beds  are  equally  convenient  for  all  things,  even 
dahlias  and  hollyhocks,  the  two  largest  and  most  unwieldy 
things  we  have  to  do  with,  would  be  at  proper  distances  one 
row  down  each  bed,  or  of  hollyhocks  perhaps  two  rows,  as 
they  do  not  spread  so  much.  But  the  very  formality  of 
the  florist's  garden,  which  would  be  neatness  itself,  should 
be  kept  up  in  the  planting.  A  pink  bed  on  one  side  should 
not  be  opposed  by  a  pansy  bed  on  the  other;  nothing  would 
look  worse,  although  we  have  often  observed  the  florist  to 
be  too  much  taken  up  with  the  flowers  individually  to  look 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  285 

at  ln's  garden  as  a  whole;  and  therefore  in  too  many  instan- 
ces lie  is  neat  only  in  the  beds  which  occupy  his  attention 
for  the  time  being.  His  pinks,  pansies,  tulips,  and  other 
flowers  occupying  the  beds,  may  be  neat  and  clean,  but  the 
beds  unoccupied  with  flowers  are  often  neglected  and  over- 
run with  weeds,  whereas  they  should  be  the  most  clean  part 
of  the  garden,  on  account  of  their  being  empty  and  having 
nothing  to  set  them  off.  A  space  must  be  cut  off,  and  put, 
as  it  were,  out  of  sight,  by  planting,  or  by  some  other 
means;  for  the  florist  must  have  his  heaps  of  composts  and 
manures,  his  shades,  glasses  and  pots  somewhere  out  of 
sight.  All  the  formality  and  uniformity  in  the  world  will 
not  serve  him,  unless  he  can  put  what  may  fairly  be  called 
rubbish  out  of  view. 

We  would  next  install  the  florist  in  his  ample  garden, 
formal  though  it  be,  with  a  tolerable  collection  of  all  the 
principal  flowers. 

PLEASURE    GROUNDS    AND    FLOWER    GARDENS. 

There  is  nothing  less  understood  among  ordinary  garden- 
ers than  the  disposal  of  ground  to  advantage  by  the  laying 
out  of  those  portions  which  are  nearest  the  house  with  a 
view  to  ornament.  Men  generally  apportion  their  walks 
and  groups  of  shrubs  and  trees  according  to  the  size  of  the 
ground,  as  if  the  persons  who  walk  about  could  change  their 
size  to  lit  a  narrow  way.  It  cannot  be  in  good  taste  to 
attempt  more  than  can  be  accomplished  well.  All  large 
estates,  even  forests  themselves,  have  beautiful  spots,  and 
we  cannot  do  better  than  imitate  by  art,  in  style  at  least, 
whatever  is  beautiful  in  nature.  If  we  attempt  in  an  acre 
of  ground  to  produce  too  many  features,  we  spoil  them  all; 
for  inasmuch  as  none  ought  to  be  insignificantly  small,  many 
would  so  crowd  the  place  as  to  leave  no  expanse  lor  lawn; 
ami  if  the  features  are  imitated  on  a  small  scale,  everything 
looks  poor  and  babylike. 

If  von  want  a  summer-house,  let  it   be  of  a  size  that  a 


230  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

party  can  enjoy  themselves  in;  not  a  pimping  cupboard  of 
a  place,  with  scarcely  room  for  a  table  and  chairs.  Choose 
an  appropriate  place  for  it,  generally  a  spot  that  commands 
fine  views.  Let  it  be  raised  a  step  or  two,  or  even  more,  if 
there  be  any  object  in  it.  Place  it  close  to  the  boundary, 
that  the  space  before  it  may  be  as  large  as  is  practicable. 
If  you  can  find  pillars  of  any  architectural  beauty,  and  a 
portico-like  top,  it  will  be  the  most  effective  model  you  can 
take.  If  you  have  to  build  it  new,  pilasters  will  be  cheaper, 
and,  if  not  quite  so  effective,  at  least  neat  and  elegant. 

The  next  object  is  to  form  the  path  round  the  garden,  as 
near  the  boundary  as  you  can  well  bring  it,  so  that  you  do 
not  prevent  the  ordinary  means  used  to  conceal  the  extent. 
The  outer  portion  of  the  ground  always  requires  to  be 
planted  well,  but  so  form  these  borders  of  shrubs  as  to  give 
variety  to  the  scene.  If  the  garden  be  square,  and  much 
confined,  it  will  cause  some  trouble;  but  let  not  the  path  be 
conducted  in  sharp  corners  or  elbows — a  graceful  turn  at  all 
points,  and  nowhere  abrupt.  The  borders  must  not  be  car- 
ried in  the  same  line  as  the  path ;  the  verges  should  be  of 
turf,  a  foot  wide  at  least — the  border  unequal  in  width,  and 
the  path  sometimes  approaching  it,  at  other  places  receding 
from  it — the  border  sometimes  showing  a  projecting  breast- 
work of  fine  shrubs,  up  close  to  the  path,  at  other  places 
leaving  a  wide  space  of  green  turf,  like  the  middle  portion 
of  the  lawn.  The  path  should  not  be  less  than  six  or  eight 
feet  wide,  and  the  centre  of  the  lawn  should  be  clear  of  all 
specimens  or  beds;  for  there  is  no  means  of  showing  space 
off  to  so  much  advantage  as  the  keeping  as  much  of  it  within 
the  range  of  the  eye  as  possible.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  set 
down  any  rule,  because  scarcely  two  places  present  the  same 
objects,  the  same  means,  and  the  same  features.  Clumps 
should  never  be  farther  from  the  edge  of  the  path  than  the 
width  of  the  verge  which  is  left  anywhere.  Whatever  size 
you  have  your  bed  or  clump,  whatever  form  it  is  to  assume, 
the  portion  next  the  path  is  to  be   cut  to  within  the  foot 


THE    AMKiUCAX    COTTAGE    BTILDKB.  287 

verge,  and  never  should  there  be  more  or  less  width  of 
verge;  consequently,  all  the  fancy  form  must  be  away  from 
the  path,  that  is,  the  side  opposite  the  path. 

Clumps  may  be  of  any  odd  form,  any  whimsical  shape, 
without  destroying  the  general  effect,  if  attention  be  paid  to 
the  narrow  verge,  and  it  be  kept  the  same  width  wherever 
the  bed  or  clump  joins  the  path.  The  corners  or  breaks  in 
the  outline  of  the  beds  suggest  good  places  for  specimen 
plants  and  shrub-,  which  should  only  be  sufficiently  removed 
from  the  path  to  secure  room  for  their  proper  growth.  Trees 
in  the  centre,  or  far  away  from  the  path,  are  blemishes;  and 
if  there  be  no  other  reason,  specimen  plants  should  be  seen 
well  without  going  out  of  the  gravel  walk. 

On  the  side  of  the  path  next  the  boundary,  breaks  may 
be  formed  with  clumps  of  roses,  or  American  plants,  or  even 
flowers,  that  the  outer  border  may  not  be  so  formal.  By  a 
receding  of  the  clump  towards  the  corner,  the  real  boundary 
may  be  so  concealed  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  there 
are  ten  yards  or  ten  acres  round  the  corner;  and  these  con- 
trivances, varied  a  little,  but  to  the  same  effect,  give  an  ap- 
pearance of  far  greater  extent  than  there  really  is.  It  is 
perfectly  immaterial  whether  this  leads  to  a  statue  or  a 
seat,  though  we  always  prefer  the  latter;  it  is  more  useful 
and  appropriate  than  any  statue.  Small  beds  or  clumps  cut 
in  the  grass,  between  the  path  and  the  border,  help  to  break 
the  line  still  more.  We  need  hardly  say  that  the  boundary 
border  of  shrubs  ought  to  be  higher  than  the  fence,  what- 
ever that  fence  may  be,  because  the  appearance  of  a  fence 
or  wall  completely  upsets  all  attempts  to  conceal  the  real 
extent.  The  greatest  evil  that  most  men  fall  into  is  the  cut- 
ting up  of  a  lawn  by  planting  trees  and  making  beds  away 
from  the  gravel  walk,  and  this  makes  us  the  more  desiroua 
to  press  upon  the  mind  the  impropriety  of  all  such  work.  It 
may  be  permitted  to  put  a  circular  basket  occasionally  near 
the  mansion,  and  form  beds  to  imitate  baskets  of  flowers; 
but  even  these  should  be  carefully  and  pparingly  adopted. 


288  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

A  flower  garden  may  be  formed  as  mechanically  as  you 
please,  of  any  pattern  that  a  pair  of  compasses  twirled 
about  twenty  ways  will  suggest;  but  they  should  always  be 
adopted  in  isolated  places  out  of  the  general  landscape — in 
some  favored  nook  that  we  may  find. 

So  far  as  it  cau  be  accomplished,  all  ugly  or  formal  build- 
ings should  be  planted  out.  Greenhouses,  and  other  horti- 
cultural buildings,  often  form  no  exception;  for  they  are 
occasionally  great  obstructions  to  a  fine  bit  of  landscape. 
The  road  being  kept  wide,  and  the  borders  planted  in  pro- 
portion, the  clumps  that  join  the  path  at  intervals  on  the 
inside  or  outside — that  is,  towards  the  border  or  towards 
the  centre  of  the  lawn — must  be  made  large  in  proportion; 
so  that,  when  the  shrubs  grow  up  to  a  reasonable  size,  the 
proportion  shall  be  in  accordance  with  all  the  rest  of  the 
plan.  Nothing  looks  so  pimpiug  and  ridiculous  as  small 
clumps;  and,  except  here  and  there  in  a  favorable  position 
for  a  few  flowers,  none  ought  to  be  made  less  than  from  ten 
to  twenty  feet  across;  because  then  you  can  form  a  rich 
clump  of  shrubs,  and  have  flowering  deciduous  trees  in  the 
centre. 

All  pleasure  grounds  should  be  planted  with  evergreens; 
the  entire  features  should  be  evergreen — as  much  varied  as 
you  please,  but  still  evergreen.  Deciduous  trees  should  only 
be  at  the  back  of  the  others,  or  surrounded  with  them,  so 
that  in  winter  time  the  place  should  look  as  well  clothed  as 
in  summer.  It  is  possible,  by  these  precautions,  to  make 
an  acre  of  ground  look  as  if  it  were  part  of  a  large  domain 
instead  of  a  limited  space;  whereas,  if  the  path  were  four 
feet  instead  of  six  or  eight  or  even  ten,  evervthin"-  would 
strongly  betoken  the  smaller  space.  We  have  seen, 'in  an 
acre  of  ground,  a  little  cottage,  a  very  small  conservatory, 
a  greenhouse  of  the  same  diminutive  kind,  the  imitation  of 
a  small  chapel,  stables,  picture  gallery,  rock-work,  fountain, 
and  twenty  other  things,  all  cramped  and  inconvenient, 
and  every  way  worthy  of  children  instead  of  grown  persons; 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  2i>9 

plenty  of  taste  iu  miniature,  but  unworthy  of  anybody  of 
expansive  mind,  and  perfectly  unnatural;  whereas,  if  the 
contriver,  who  was  BO  ambitious  to  imitate  everything,  had 
been  content  to  make  all  his  space  match  some  pleasant 
portion  of  a  larger  estate,  there  had  been  something  to 
admire  and  think  of  afterwards — something  that  would  bear 
looking  at.  It  is  quite  possible  to  adopt  some  other  feature, 
but  nothing  should  be  attempted  upon  a  small  scale;  it  only 
destroys  the  grand  features  of  the  landscape.  For  instance, 
if  there  be  any  appropriate  place,  there  might  be  rock-work; 
or  if  there  be  facilities  for  water,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
its  being  done ;  but,  unless  it  be  done  upon  a  large  scale,  it 
is  labor  wasted  to  spoil  the  scene. 

Straight  paths  ought,  under  any  circumstances,  to  be 
avoided  in  the  pleasure  grounds,  if  the  landscape  plan  be 
adopted;  and  portions  of  the  house  should  be  planted  out  as 
well  as  any  ugly  object;  that  is,  the  shrubs  planted  near  the 
house  in  clumps  should  be  so  placed  as  to  break  the  straight 
line.  If  the  house  happen  to  be  on  an  eminence,  a  terrace 
walk  is  not  uncommon  nor  inelegant;  but  the  planting  of 
the  front  below  it  should  be  so  contrived  as  to  hide  all  the 
formality,  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  forming  large 
clumps  at  appropriate  points.  The  main  path,  too,  shoul  1 
be  carried  round  quite  independent  of  the  terrace  walk,  and 
removed  far  enough  to  allow  of  planting  between  them,  so 
as  to  conceal  all  the  stiff  outline  of  the  terrace-walk,  and 
keep  up  the  landscape  character  of  the  principal  lawn  and 
shrubbery. 

Of  course,  every  place  has  its  peculiar  capabilities  and 
disadvantages,  and  we  must  always  be  guided  a  little  by 
circumstances;  but  the  main  object — that  of  making  the 
place  appear  as  large  as  possible,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
make  the  most  of  a  small  space — must  be  kept  in  view. 

The  principle  on  which  landscape  gardens  is  conducted 
properly,  is  that  which  pervades  the  most  beautiful  spots  iu 
nature.      Lauscape  gardening  is  the  art  of  imitating  aa 

13 


290  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

many  natural  beauties  as  possible  in  a  garden,  and  follow- 
ing nature  strictly  as  a  teacher;  hence  we  have  no  straight 
walks,  no  square-sided  canals.  But,  inasmuch  as  nature 
furnishes  us  with  a  reason  for  crooked  roads  and  winding 
streams,  we  must  take  care  and  imitate  the  cause  of  the 
deviation  as  well  as  the  deviation  itself.  The  paths  pointed 
out  for  us  on  swampy  ground,  are  the  highest  portions ;  the 
road  marked  out  for  us  in  a  mountainous  country  is  round 
a  hill  rather  than  straight  across  it.  Nature,  therefore, 
always  furnishes  us  with  the  cause  of  deviation;  we  cannot 
go  straight  through  a  forest,  nor  straight  over  a  mountain; 
we  cannot,  or  rather  we  will  not,  go  through  water  while 
by  walking  further  round  it  we  can  keep  dry.  Water  itself 
winds  a  devious  course,  because  it  will  keep  to  the  lowest 
ground.  Pour  a  jug  of  water  gently  on  the  ground,  even 
where  you  think  it  level,  and  you  will  soon  see  that  the 
slightest  inequality  will  cause  it  to  turn  aside.  In  this  way 
have  rivers  been  formed;  and  there  is  hardly  anything  more 
picturesque  than  the  winding  of  a  river,  where  there  is  also 
grass  and  wood  to  help  the  scenery.  Now  there  is  nothing 
here  but  what  can  be  imitated;  but  it  is  better  let  alone 
than  attempted  on  a  small  scale. 

We  may  be  told  that  we  cannot  imitate  the  sturdy  oak 
of  a  century:  then  let  it  not  be  attempted;  but  there  is 
generally  timber  in  the  place,  or  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
the  art  of  planting  is  so  to  dispose  your  own  trees  as  to 
conceal  the  boundary  where  your  estate  ends  and  somebody 
else's  begins.  It  is  the  very  acme  of  good  management  to 
appropriate  the  surrounding  trees  to  your  own  purpose; 
that  is,  make  them  features  in  your  own  landscape.  Plant 
your  own  as  if  there  were  no  fence  or  wall  between  you  and 
them;  and  this,  remember,  is  to  be  done  by  a  judicious 
management  of  the  planting  at  the  fence  and  the  clumps 
that  are  nearest.  In  some  places  barely  top  the  fence  by  the 
shrubs — in  others,  get  in  the  very  tallest  you  can  find;  have 
a  clump  between  the  lowest  and  the  walk,  with  shrubs  con- 


T11K.    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  291 

siderably  taller  than  those  at  the  fence.  These  features  are 
calculated  to  break  the  appearance  of  a  boundary,  and  1  J 
widening  the  boundary-planting  considerably  in  some  parts, 
you  again  destroy  the  monotony  aud  give  an  appearance  of 
extent.  The  shrubs  used  in  planting  should  be  chosen 
rather  with  regard  to  the  wood  around  you.  If,  for  in- 
stance, you  are  surrounded  with  firs  and  cedars,  let  some  of 
your  plants  be  the  same;  not  the  same  sorts,  but  the  same 
family.  If  the  nearest  trees  are  chestnut,  or  lime,  or  elm, 
or  any  other  distinct  character,  do  as  much  towards  imitat- 
ing it  as  the  nature  of  your  planting  will  allow.  You  are 
not  to  use  all  deciduous  plants,  because  they  do;  but  you 
may  have  enough  of  them,  as  near  the  boundary  as  may  be. 
The  most  effective  kind  of  planting  away  from  the  house  is, 
to  keep  each  clump  distinct  as  to  family — hollies  in  one  or 
more;  pines  and  cedars,  laurel,  bay — each  and  every  inter- 
esting family  may  be  provided  with  its  place  at  the  most 
distant  clumps.  Nearer  the  house,  the  Magnolia  tribe,  in 
all  its  hardy  varieties,  may  form  one  or  more  of  the  conspic- 
uous groups.  The  various  American  flowering  shrubs  may 
either  form  dwarf  clumps  in  appropriate  places,  or  foremost 
objects  in  the  larger  ones;  aud  the  border  or  belt  planta- 
tion should  be  a  mixture  of  everything  lively  and  varied. 
The  dark  green  of  the  holly  and  yew  will  contrast  well  with 
the  brighter  greens  of  the  laurel,  or  the  lighter  hues  of  the 
Aucuba  japonica,  and  other  variegated  shrubs.  Regard, 
however,  must  be  had  to  the  rate  at  which  the  different 
trees  grow,  or  you  may  have  your  front  shrubs  in  a  few 
seasons  topping  the  back  ones,  and  destroying  the  grace* 
fulness  of  the  groups  formed  here  and  there  in  the  border, 
and  spoiling  the  effect  altogether. 

The  borders  and  clumps  should  be  all  made  large  enough 
to  leave  two  feet  for  the  summer  additions  of  flowers,  and 
to  accommodate  always,  at  particular  distances,  a  few  of 
the  best  flowering  dwarf  Americans,  which  show  their 
blooms  only  in  spring,  and  enliven  the  scene  when  it  would 


292  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

otherwise  be  sombre.  The  Pyrus  japonica,  with  its  scarlet 
flowers,  begins  in  the  autumn,  and  continues,  if  mild,  all  the 
winter.  The  dwarf  almond  is  almost  the  first  to  show  the 
approach  of  spring;  and  numerous  other  plants,  unimpor- 
tant in  themselves,  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  a  well-planted 
border.  The  path  once  laid  down,  uie  turves  soon  carpet 
the  space,  and  nothing  so  soon  puts  a  finish  on  the  land 
scape  garden. 

TVe  here  speak  ouly  of  the  most  simple  style  of  gar- 
dening; we  say  nothing  of  water  or  roek-work,  of  hill  or 
dale,  nor  of  flower-gardens:  all  those  require  separate  no- 
tice, and  have  had  it;  we  merely  recommend  that,  as  a 
summer-house  is  the  first  thing  everybody  thinks  of,  it 
should  be  ou  a  good  large  scale,  in  imitation  of  a  temple; 
that  the  ground,  if  it  be  but  an  acre,  should  be  laid  out  in 
landscape  fashion,  and  that  the  rules  of  landscape  garden- 
ing be  observed  in  every  movement  : — a  formal  shrubbery 
is  a  frightful  object. 

THE    FLOWER    GARDEN". 

Geometrical  or  Dutch  gardens  are  very  beautiful,  when 
made  in  appropriate  places  and  upon  good  principles,  but 
the  diversity  of  form  is  endless;  and  there  is  hardly  a  pret- 
tier feature  in  a  garden  establishment,  if  it  be  well  managed. 
They  ought  to  be  formed  with  gravel  walks  and  beds,  and 
the  designs  should  be  very  different  from  those  flower-gar- 
dens which  are  formed  by  cutting  particular  figures  in  grass, 
though  both  should  be  done  in  such  uniform  figures  as  to 
make  up  a  pretty  whole.  In  marking  the  garden  for  gravel 
walks,  the  figure  must  be  so  managed  as  that  the  gravel 
walks  shall  be  of  equal  width  all  through  the  figure,  whereas 
in  grass  borders,  which  allow  much  more  intermediate  space, 
there  is  no  need  of  confining  the  portion  between  the  beds 
in  any  way.  In  fact,  the  portions  to  walk  on  may  be  of 
a  particular  figure  as  well  as  the  beds  themselves;  but  there 
should,  nevertheless,  be  a  complete  uniformity  throughout, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  293 

because,  when  the  eye  rests  on  anything  manifestly  artificial, 
it  should  always  be  in  order  and  regularity. 

It  may,  however,  be  said,  that  pieces  of  ground  generally 
selected  out  of  the  general  landscape — that  is  to  say,  in  a 
recess  of  some  kind,  or  nook  of  the  garden — are  not  always 
of  a  uniform  figure,  and  in  such  case  the  figure  cannot  be 
made  uniform;  but  where  such  is  the  case,  a  square,  or  ob- 
long, or  circle,  must  be  taken  as  large  as  the  ground  will 
admit,  to  contain  the  figure,  and  the  remainder  laid  out 
independently,  without  spoiling  the  figure.     For  instance, 
say  the  plot  of  ground  is  neither  round,  square,  nor  any 
regular  figure  whatever;  begin  by  making  a  positive  geo- 
metrical figure,  as  large  as  it  will  allow,  and  let  the  other 
path  be  made  first;  all  that  is  outside  the  path  may  be 
planted  with  shrubs,  or  made  into  a  rosary,  with  dwarf 
plants  nearest  the  path,  and  all  behind  gradually  rising,  or 
it  may,  if  there  be  much  of  it,  be  put  into  grass.    The  inner 
portion,  or  figure,  whether  it  be  square,  round,  oblong,  or 
triangle,  is  then  to  be  laid  out.     We  confess  that,  to  us. 
there  is  nothing  so  effective  as  a  circle;  it  admits  of  endless 
variety,  and  you  may  form  a  hundred  designs,  if  you  only 
play  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  as  a  boy  does  when  he  makes 
stars  for  his  kite.     Set  your  compasses  with  a  double  line, 
so  that  they  form  the  path;  get  some  paper  ruled  with  lines 
to  form  squares  of  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  and  set  the  double 
point  of  your  compasses   to  that  width,  and  reckon  this 
eighth  of  an  inch  either  two  feet  or  three  feet,  whichever 
you  intend  your  paths  to  be;  set  your  compasses  so  that  you 
take  in  the  exact  size  you  intend  the  ground  to  be  occupied: 
first  draw  your  circle;  but,  as  the  outer  path  is  to  be  any 
width  you  please,  make  proper  allowance  for  it.     Having 
made  your  circle,  without  altering  your  compasses,  stick  the 
point  on  the  outer  line,  and  make  the  double  point  com- 
mence at  one  side,  and  draw  it  over  to  the  outer  edge  on 
the  other  side;  put  the  point  in  again  on  the  outer  line, 
where  the  other  left  off,  and  continue  to  do  this  until  you 


294  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE   BUILDER. 

have  perfected  the  figure  as  far  as  it  can  be  perfected,  by 
putting  the  point  of  the  compasses  into  the  marks  where 
the  other  or  moving  points  come  home.  If  the  point  is  now- 
put  exactly  half  way,  and  another  series  of  circles  or  por- 
tions similar  to  those  already  made  are  worked  out,  the 
divisions  will  be  more  numerous,  and  the  shapes  may  be  more 
diversified.  But,  in  order  to  get  a  greater  variety  of  forms, 
and  to  get  some  practice,  it  is  better,  perhaps,  to  use  the 
single  points  only,  and,  without  altering  the  compasses  at 
all,  make  a  circle;  then,  with  the  point  on  the  line,  draw  a 
second;  place  the  point  on  the  line  of  the  first  circle  where 
the  second  crosses  it,  and  make  a  third;  the  point  where 
this  crosses  make  a  fourth,  and  keep  on  until  six  circles 
round  the  first  complete  a  figure.  By  commencing  another 
series,  with  the  point  half  way  between  the  points  used  for 
the  six,  you  make  twelve.  The  whole  circles  being  filled 
with  squares  already  ruled,  you  will  be  able  to  mark  out 
beds  of  the  most'  extraordinary  shapes,  but  perfectly  uni- 
form. These  may  be  still  more  diversified,  by  drawing  from 
the  centre  point  one  circle  half  way  between  the  line  of  the 
first  circle  and  the  centre  point,  by  altering  the  compasses 
to  half  the  width. 

A  man  inclined  to  form  plans  for  flower  gardens  will  de- 
rive infinite  amusement  from  the  numerous  forms  that  can  be 
made  with  geometrical  precision  by  merely  playing  with  a 
pair  compasses.  When  we  come  to  reduce  this  to  actual 
practice,  the  compasses  must  have  a  double  point  for  the 
paths,  for  these  must  be  of  one  uniform  breadth  all  through 
the  bed,  and  in  no  case  should  the  width  come  double. 
Those,  however,  who  have  not  the  double  point,  may  pro- 
duce the  necessary  lines  by  opening  the  compasses  as  much 
as  the  path  is  to  occupy. 

It  would  be  scarcely  worth  while  to  give  examples, 
because  the  instant  any  working  man  begins  with  the  com- 
passes, he  will  see  there  is  no  difficulty  in  producing  endless 
variety. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BCILDEB.  295 

The  plans  of  beds  to  be  cut  on  grass  merely  require  that 
the  portions  to  be  planted  should  be  wider  apart;  grass 
must,  not  be  too  narrow;  the  grass  must  form  the  carpet, 
and  the  beds  the  pattern:  taste,  with  the  aid  of  ruled  paper 
aud  the  compasses,  will  suggest  a  thousand  modes  to  please 
the  eye. 

But  when  the  garden  is  made,  there  is  much  to  be  consid- 
ered in  the  planting.  Xot  one  flower  garden  in  a  hundred  is 
ever  decently  filled;  uniformity  and  symmetry  are  lost  sight 
of  in  the  endeavor  to  use  as  many  kinds  of  flowers  as  possi- 
ble; and  not  one  have  we  seen  that  has  not  been  spoiled  by 
the  mode  of  planting.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  twenty-four  beds — three,  or  six,  or  twelve,  of  one 
form,  besides  a  centre  one — though  to  see  one  of  these  geo- 
metrical gardens  in  perfection,  the  centre  should  be  gravel, 
that  the  proper  effect  may  be  seen  from  the  middle,  whereas 
a  centre  bed  deprives  us  of  this  view.  If,  as  is  usual,  there 
be  six  beds  of  a  form,  it  is  throwing  all  the  advantage  away 
to  aim  at  too  many  colors.  Every  alternate  bed  may  be  of 
one  subject,  which,  being  uniform,  gives  a  good  effect;  but 
we  prefer  all  six  alike.  Another  six  may  be  all  alike,  and 
of  another  color.  So  also  may  be  a  third  and  a  fourth  six. 
Annuals  are  great  favorites  in  geometrical  gardens,  but 
there  is  nothing  comes  up  to  the  verbena  for  length  and 
steadiness  of  bloom,  unless  it  is  the  scarlet  geranium.  Let 
the  outside  of  the  figure  be  planted  with  anything  you  please, 
but  have  the  figure  itself  planted  with  subjects  that  require 
no  changing.  The  more  intricate  the  figure,  the  more  the 
necessity  for  dwarf  plants  and  for  permanent  subjects. 
Those  beds  which  form  the  outside  circles  cannot  be  better 
planted  than  with  various  scarlet  geraniums;  they  are  strik- 
ing and  lasting.  The  diversity  of  colors  in  the  verbena,  and 
the  exceedingly  dwarf  habit  of  the  creeping  varieties,  afford 
great  facilities  for  completing  the  inner  beds — there  are  pur- 
ple, white,  pink,  lilac,  salmon  color,  crimson,  and  indeed 
almost  every  shade  but  yellow  may  be  secured  from  May 


296  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

until  the  frost  cuts  them  off.  The  only  color  we  seem  to 
want  is  yellow,  and  these  are,  for  the  most  part,  temporary. 

If,  however,  changes  are  to  be  made,  we  have  abundance 
of  colors  among  the  annuals  and  perennials  of  other  kinds, 
so  that  we  need  not  cross  our  fancy  for  colors.  The  nernoph- 
Has,  convolvulus,  and  Lupinus  nanus,  give  us  blue;  the  esch- 
scholtzia  and  erysimums,  orange;  the  mimulus  and  yellow 
pansies  are  bright  and  beautiful;  but  to  see  a  geometrical 
garden  stuffed  with  heliotropes,  which  are  nothing  to  look 
at,  or  mignonette,  or  any  of  the  usual  straggling  and  ineffec- 
tive subjects,  is  aggravating  to  every  man  of  taste. 

Everything  in  one  of  these  flower  gardens  should  be  strik- 
ing and  dwarf;  they  must  never  overrun  the  box  edging, 
because  the  figure  is  at  once  destroyed.  There  is  a  vast 
difference  between  the  management  of  these  and  mere  clumps 
on  lawns  or  beds  in  any  other  place  It  is  of  the  highest 
consequence  to  keep  everything  within  the  figure,  wherever 
that  figure  is  valued. 

The  formation  of  these  gardens  on  paper,  in  the  manner 
we  have  hinted,  renders  it  very  easy  on  the  ground,  because 
it  will  occur  to  any  practical  man  that  by  placing  a  stake 
on  the  spot  where  the  point  of  the  compasses  is  placed  on 
the  paper,  a  cord  doubled  and  tied  the  exact  length  you 
want  will  be  your  compasses;  put  one  end  of  the  loop  over 
the  stake,  and  put  a  stick  to  the  other  end,  and  you  may 
mark  your  circle  as  well  on  the  ground  as  your  compasses 
do  on  the  paper.  You  therefore  dig  and  trench  the  whole 
plot,  level  it  and  roll  it  to  an  even  surface,  then  mark  it  by 
means  of  your  line  and  stakes  until  you  have  your  figure  on 
the  ground;  when  you  have  all  your  marks  made,  rub  out 
with  the  foot  all  those  you  do  not  intend  to  use;  leave  none 
but  your  beds  and  the  paths  between  them  to  divide  your 
attention.  You  then  commence  operations  by  throwing  out 
the  earth  a  spit  deep  along  the  middle  of  your  paths  to  make 
room  for  chopping  the  sides  down  like  a  bank,  carefully 
pressing  the  back  of  the  spade  in  a  sloping  direction,  so  as 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  291 

to  make  the  beds  all  perfect  and  standing  in  relief;  the  earth 
you  have  thrown  out  of  the  paths  is  as  well  on  the  beds  as 
any  where.  This  being  all  perfected,  and  the  loose  earth 
chopped  from  the  sides  being  in  the  path,  trim  all  your  box 
of  a  length,  with  the  tops  cut  square,  and  thin  it  out  almost 
into  single  stems;  the  box  when  planted  ought  not  to  be 
more  than  an  inch  wide  in  any  part,  and,  unless  it  be  torn 
into  small  plants,  you  cannot  manage  to  make  it  even.  The 
surface  of  the  ground  being  perfectly  level  when  you  begin, 
and  the  earth  thrown  on  to  the  beds  lying  on  the  middle, 
and  not  interrupting  the  line  of  plan,  take  your  box  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  and  lay  it  against  the  bank  you  have  formed, 
with  the  tops  just  half  an  inch  above  the  surface,  and  this 
being  cut  square,  can  be  so  well  adjusted  that  when  finished 
it  will  be  as  level  and  even  in  thickness  as  it  can  be  made. 
As  you  lay  it,  bring  the  loose  earth  in  the  path  up  against 
it  to  hold  it  in  its  place,  forming  a  bank  outside  to  keep 
it  firm.  We  need  hardly  say  that,  if  this  be  all  properly  done, 
the  figures  will  be  perfect,  and  the  box  all  alike  the  whole 
length.  You  have  then  only  to  wheel  the  gravel  in,  and, 
with  a  narrow  roller,  press  it  into  its  place  without  disturb- 
ing the  box,  the  figure  of  which,  if  kept  properly  preserved, 
will  last  unimpaired  many  years. 

The  principal  points  to  attend  to  are — first,  to  roll  all  the 
ground  smooth,  and  see  that  it  is  level;  next,  so  mark  your 
figure  as  that  you  can  see  well  what  you  are  about,  putting 
out  those  marks  which  are  mere  surplusage — that  is  not 
wanted ;  all  the  marks  that  cross  the  walks  and  confuse  the 
fio-ure,  but  which,  nevertheless,  like  the  crosses  and  marks 
on  the  paper,  come  on  the  development  of  the  figure — so  as 
to  leave  the  figure  perfect  and  easy  to  decipher.  Then  clear 
out  a  good  spit  deep  all  the  centres  of  the  paths,  and  throw 
the  stuff  on  the  centre  of  the  beds  if  they  are  large;  but  if 
they  are  numerous  and  small,  it  may  be  necessary  to  get  rid 
of  it  by  wheeling  it  away  altogether;  generally,  however, 

13* 


298  THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

the  beds  are  large  enough  to  take  it,  and  only  rise  a  little 
for  it  in  the  middle. 

We  have  said  nothing  here  about  draining,  because  we 
presume  upon  that  having  been  performed  on  every  part  of 
the  garden  before  you  commence.  The  chopping  out  of 
the  figure  is  rendered  very  simple  and  easy,  by  removing  the 
earth  from  the  middle  of  the  paths ;  but  there  is  some  inge- 
neuity  in  pressing  the  soil  of  the  sloping  bank  you  form,  so 
as  to  make  it  firm.  Gardeners  who  are  used  to  the  work, 
press  the  back  of  the  spade  against  the  part  they  leave,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  take  the  other  away;  on  the  cor- 
rectness with  which  you  attend  to  the  lines  of  the  figure  de- 
pends the  entire  beauty  of  the  flower  garden  up  to  the  plant- 
ing, which,  if  ill-managed,  will  destroy  the  best  figure  in  the 
world,  or  at  least  mar  the  effect. 

It  is  necessary,  first,  to  choose  dwarf  subjects  that  bloom 
as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible;  secondly,  to  put  the  col- 
ors in  uniform — that  is,  if  six  equal  beds  are  round  a  centre, 
only  to  attempt  two  colors  or  two  mixtures,  one  each  for 
the  alternate  beds;  then  three  scarlets  at  triangles,  and 
three  purples,  yellows,  whites,  or  blues  at  the  points  of  the 
other  triangle.  Some  would  think  they  met  all  the  neces- 
sary uniformity  by  three  different  colors,  one  opposite  the 
other,  but  the  magic  of  a  well-balanced  geometrical  figure  is 
destroyed  at  once,  as  will  be  seen  in  an  instant  by  trying  it 
on  paper.  Thirdly,  for  the  sake  of  saving  trouble,  use  such 
subjects  as  will  not  require  changing;  for  though  we  admit 
there  is  a  charm  in  change,  it  is  very  difficult  to  manage  it 
without  losing  bloom  for  a  considerable  time,  or  occupying 
many  hundreds  if  not  thousands  of  pots  to  bring  on  things 
that  may  be  got  to  bloom  for  such  changes. 

It  is  possible  to  manage  thus  for  a  succession  of  bloom, 
with  abundance  of  trouble  and  means.  See  how  many  pots 
will  fill  all  the  beds  at  six  inches  apart,  and  that  the  earliest 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  opening  spring,  let  so  many 
pots  be  used  for  spring  bulbs,  three  colors  of  crocuses,  yel- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  299 

low,  blue,  and  white;  the  same  of  hyacinths,  confining  the 
latter  to  the  dwarf  kinds;  then  there  are  snow-drops,  Scilla 
sibirica,  and  the  dwarf  daffodil;  these  latter  are  even  before 
the  crocuses.  The  pots  of  everything  should  be  one  size, 
what  is  called  large  sixty,  or  four  inches  at  top  but  much 
smaller  at  bottom.  To  follow  these,  which  will  last  from 
February  till  May,  the  verbenas  in  every  variety  may  be 
brought  forward;  but  there  is  a  choice  of  fifty  things  that 
may  be  in  bloom  in  May.  The  beauty  of  this  pot  system 
is,  that  all  the  pots  being  of  one  size,  they  have  merely  to 
be  lifted  out  when  done  blooming,  and  those  in  flower  drop- 
ped into  the  same  holes.  An  hour,  with  proper  assistance, 
would  do  thousands  of  pots,  and  the  whole  face  would  be 
changed  before  breakfast  any  morning,  and  the  old  pots 
wheeled  away.  Generally  speaking,  flower  gardens  are  not 
made  up  till  May,  and  then  there  is  abundant  choice. 

In  very  small  places,  always  in  sight,  the  pot  supply  is 
good,  and  it  is  carried  out  with  great  advantage  in  villa 
gardens,  where  everybody  who  passes  can  see  the  place. 

There  is  but  little  taste  exhibited  in  bedding  out  plants 
generally.  Those  subjects  which  belong  only  to  the  backs 
of  wide  borders  are  frequently  thrust  into  pretty  small 
clumps,  the  form  of  which  is  destroyed  before  the  plants  are 
half  grown.  Tall  fuchsias,  salvias,  and  other  similar  tall 
plants,  are  totally  unfit  for  any  given  figure;  they  are  only 
fit  to  be  placed  in  the  background.  If  they  are  to  grace  a 
clump,  it  should  be  on  a  large  scale,  and  without  any  par- 
ticular outline  or  figure. 

The  prettiest  way  of  showing  off  anything  ennobling  or 
tall,  is  in  clumps  with  basket  or  rustic  borders,  that  they 
may  appear  like  baskets  set  on  the  lawn.  Roses  look  better 
so  than  any  other  way,  and  if  the  basket  border  be  well 
adapted,  there  is  hardly  a  prettier  device.  Helitropes, 
mignonette,  violets,  and  aromatic  plants  generally,  which 
are  really  wanted  for  their  perfume,  and  are  nothing  to  look 
at,  should  be  always  placed  in  the  nooks  and  corners.    Thejf 


300  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

form  no  feature  in  flower-beds,  and  the  perfume  is  quite  as 
pleasant  when  they  are  not  seen  as  when  they  are. 

There  may,  however,  be  great  liberties  taken  with  iso- 
lated beds  cut  on  lawns;  it  is  only  when  they  form  part  of 
a  figure,  that  we  are  bound  under  any  circumstances  to 
preserve  that  figure,  and  more  particularly  if  it  be  at  all 
dependent  on  angles  or  intricate  windings.  Many  consider 
the  figures  cut  in  grass  to  be  superior  in  effect  to  those 
formed  with  gravel  paths  and  box;  we  do  not.  Grass  is 
such  a  finish  in  itself,  when  well  kept,  that  we  would  not 
consent  for  a  moment  to  impair  the  expanse  of  the  centre 
by  cutting  up  any  part  of  it  for  flowers.  If  there  needs 
must  be  flowers  on  grass,  let  the  beds  be  at  the  side  parallel 
with  the  main  path ;  let  there  be  a  verge  of  green  a  foot, 
wide — the  bed  cut  close  up  to  that — and  whatever  diver- 
sity of  figure  may  be  required,  let  it  be  inside.  Yary  the 
figure  as  much  as  you  please  inwardly,  so  that  it  reach  a 
mere  verge  of  grass  next  the  path ;  but  to  cut  a  lawn  into 
holes,  beds,  clumps,  or  whatever  else  you  may  call  them,  is 
to  destroy  the  beautiful  expanse  which  is  the  very  charm  of 
a  lawn.  Nevertheless,  it  is  the  whim  and  fancy  of  some  to 
cut  even  geometrical  figures  in  grass;  and  although  we 
have  an  insuperable  objection,  there  are  some  points  to 
attend  to  where  it  must  be  done,  to  make  it  even  tolerable. 
For  instance,  as  the  flower  beds  are  useless  unless  they  are 
attractive,  visitors  always  frequent  their  vicinity;  and  if 
there  be  not  ample  room,  the  grass  is  soon  destroyed  by 
merely  walking  over  the  same  spot  repeatedly.  On  this 
account  the  beds  must  always  be  smaller  in  proportion  than 
they  are  on  gravel,  where  a  path  may  be  trampled  on  from 
morning  till  night,  any  day  in  the  year,  without  damage; 
but  if  the  grass  be  ever  so  expansive  in  proportion  to  the 
beds,  it  is  soon  damaged  if  there  be  many  visitors.  This  is 
our  grand  objection;  for  when  grass  is  worn  a  little,  it  can- 
not be  brought  up  again  without  prohibiting  a  footstep 
altogether,  or  laying  down  fresh  turf;  and  either  of  thei-e, 


A 


O      I 


El 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTACIE    BIII.PKR.  301 

done  at  the  very  season  a  place  is  most  frequented,  is  a  scri 
ous  objection. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  figures  cut  in  the  grass  on 
both  sides  of  a  long,  straight  walk.  Whoever  adopts  a 
straight  walk  as  a  feature,  finds  something  is  required  to 
take  off  the  monotony  and  divert  the  eye,  and  this  leads  to 
something  perfectly  obnoxious  to  good  taste.  There  is 
nothing  elevated  in  the  detail,  because  there  is  a  common 
mechanical  notion  in  the  path  itself.  There  may  be  mathe- 
matical precision,  but  there  is  no  grace  in  a  straight  road ; 
and  the  form  of  clumps  or  flower-beds  on  the  sides  of  the 
straight  road  is  necessarily  mechanical  also,  and  subject  to 
everybody's  objection;  for  if  once  we  descend  to  mere  friv- 
olity, and  make  uniform  half-moons,  or  horseshoes,  or  dia- 
monds, or  circles  on  each  side  of  a  straight  path,  we  might 
just  have  at  once  a  row  of  posts,  and  chains  hung  on  fes- 
toons for  the  children  to  swing  upon.  If  a  piece  of  lawn  is 
to  be  devoted  to  a  flower-garden,  and  the  geometrical  figure 
is  to  be  adopted,  let  it  be  so  made  that  the  eye  may  look 
down  upon  it  from  an  eminence.  Rosherville  Gardens 
afforded  this  opportunity.  There  is  nothing  in  the  figure  but 
what  the  compasses  and  a  ruler  would  accomplish;  and 
what  will  they  not? — but  when  the  fancy  beds  were  nearly 
filled  and  in  bloom,  we  could  look  down  from  the  chalky 
heights  and  fancy  the  lawn  a  green  carpet  and  the  beds  a 
gaudy  pattern,  standing  up  in  bold  relief  ;  but,  as  we  have 
already  said,  the  grass  must  form  the  principal  quantity, 
and  contain  a  space  large  enough  to  prevent  wearing  in  any 
one  track. 

The  figures  necessary  for  grass  are  as  easily  contrived  as 
those  intended  for  gravel  walks.  The  identical  figure,  with 
its  thousand  circles,  and  crosses,  and  angles,  that  will  give 
us  fifty  varieties  of  form  for  a  Dutch  garden  with  gravel 
walks,  will  give  equally  as  many  for  a  grass  carpet.  To 
look  at  one  of  these  practice  papers,  as  we  may  call  them, 
is  like  pleasing  one's  fancy  in  a  coal  fire.     We  may  fancy  a 


302  THE  AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

thousand  forms  by  looking  in  one,  two,  or  more  of  the 
minute  divisions,  in  what  shape  you  please,  and  these  are 
sure  comparisons.  There  is  not  a  division  nor  half  a  dozen 
joined  to  make  a  form,  but  five  more  can  be  found  to 
match  it.  We  feel  more  than  half  inclined  to  give  an  in- 
stance of  a  paper  scratched  all  over  with  circles  of  different 
sizes  on  a  ground-work  of  squares;  it  would  give  an  idea 
of  the  diversity  to  be  worked  out;  but  it  is  so  simple  an 
operation  to  provide,  that  it  would  almost  imply  deficiency 
of  intellect  to  publish  one,  and  we  would  rather  have  the 
young  gardener  try. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  everybody  does  not  like  a  figure 
formed  within  a  given  square  or  circle;  that  the  ground 
may  be  more  favorable  for  an  oblong.  It  is  granted  :  then 
work  your  figure  with  two  circles,  and  it  will  be  twice  as 
long  as  it  is  wide,  or  a  circle  and  a  half,  which  will  make  an 
oblong  not  so  divided;  but  you  must  mark  out  the  ground 
you  intend  to  lay  out,  and  always  keep  your  eye  upon  uni- 
formity. Draw  circles  without  number  from  various  points, 
only  keep  up  uniformity  ;  that  is,  if  you  place  the  point 
of  your  compasses  on  a  spot  nearer  one  side  or  end  than 
the  other,  do  the  same  on  the  other  side  or  end,  that  there 
may  be  corresponding  circles.  The  ruled  paper,  be  it  re- 
membered, already  gives  you  the  advantage  of  paths  cross- 
ing in  various  directions,  and  saves  many  speculative  rulings 
during  the  process  of  designing. 

In  the  transfer  of  any  design  from  the  paper  to  the  ground, 
you  have  only  to  remember  that  the  stake  placed  firm  on 
any  part  of  the  bed  or  figure  forms  the  equivalent  to  one 
point  of  your  compass,  and  the  loop  of  any  dimensions  you 
please  put  over  it,  and  the  point  you  mark  with  the  other 
end  of  the  loop,  is  the  working  point  of  your  compass;  the 
shortening  or  lengthening  of  the  loop  opens  or  closes  your 
compass,  while  the  squares  on  your  paper  enable  you  to  do 
everything  by  scale;  the  eighth  of  an  inch  may  be  the  rep- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  303 

resentative  of  one  foot,  two  feet,  or  three  feet;  you  cannot 
go  wrong. 

With  these  remarks,  and  a  few  evening's  practice  with 
the  rule  and  compasses,  you  will  produce  an  endless  variety 
of  plans,  all  tending  to  illustrate  the  beauties  of  geometrical 
gardening.  But  they  must  be  made  in  places  which  do  not 
interfere  with  the  general  features  of  the  establishment.  If 
there  be  no  natural  recess  or  nook  calculated  for  the  place, 
you  must  take  the  most  eligible,  and  plant  it  out  as  if  it  did 
not  belong  to  the  concern.  It  is  not  generally  desirable  to 
make  a  place  smaller;  but  better  anything  than  introduce 
formality  in  a  landscape.  It  is  not  difficult  to  shut  out  a 
space.  It  is  true  that  the  first  year,  and  before  the  shrubs 
have  a  little  growth  upon  them,  the  design  will  be  seen 
through;  but  as  soon  as  the  planting  fills  up  a  little,  the 
object  is  concealed.  The  most  desirable  place  perhaps  is  a 
corner,  and  that  because  the  concealment  is  not  so  conspic- 
uous. By  bringing  out  a  belt  of  shrubs  far  enough  to 
enclose  the  necessary  space,  you  may  either  conceal  the  en- 
trace  by  planting  one  belt  to  overlap  the  other,  or  by  erect- 
ing a  small  temple  or  covered  seat  as  an  object  in  the  land- 
scape. The  flower  garden  may  be  placed  at  the  back. 
Flower  gardens,  straight  walks,  terraces,  statues,  and  all 
manner  of  architectural  contrivances,  may  be  made  in  front 
or  at  the  back  of  greenhouses,  conservatories,  or  other  orna- 
mental buildings,  and  beds  laid  out  in  appropriate  style. 
Tbe  plan  of  the  buildings  will  suggest  the  most  eligible  plan 
for  the  garden,  but  whatever  is  formal  should  be  planted 
out  from  the  general  landscape,  even  when  the  formality  is 
forced  upon  us. 

TIIE    GREENHOUSE. 

The  greenhouse  is  always  after  a  pit  or  frame,  the  first 
glass  structure  that  anybody  erects,  and  the  only  one  that 
a  builder  who  wants  a  tenant  in  the  country,  thinks  of 
building  to  go  with  his  house.     Wherever  there  is  a  glas? 


304  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

house  of  any  kind,  it  is  called  a  greenhouse;  it  is  one  remove 
from  the  garden  frame,  or  pit,  and  when  there  is  no  other 
horticultural  building,  it  is  invariably  used  for  a  mixture  of 
plants  of  all  families.  But  there  are  certain  appropriate 
plants  which  will  so  far  accommodate  each  other  as  to  wants 
and  sufferings,  that  where  one  will  live  another  will  be  doing 
well,  and  by  a  little  care  a  goodly  show  of  plants  may  be 
maintained. 

The  ordinary  form,  and  the  best,  for  a  greenhouse  of  this 
kind,  is  a  "lean-to,"  as  it  is  called;  that  is,  a  wall  of  the 
proper  height  forms  the  back ;  the  front  is  two  feet  six  of 
brick-work,  or  thereabouts,  and  two  feet  of  glass;  a  table  or 
shelf  two  feet  wide,  or,  if  the  house  be  roomy,  perhaps  two 
feet  six  inches,  next  the  window,  and  a  stage  sloping  like 
the  roof,  the  front  shelf  the  same  height  as  the  front  table, 
and  rising  shelf  above  shelf  to  the  top.  The  width  of  the 
house  from  front  to  back  is  generally  according  to  the  room ; 
it  should  not  be  less  than  twelve  feet,  but  a  roof  made  of 
two  eight-feet  lights,  and  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees, 
would  be  advisable.  The  heating  required  in  common  of  a 
greenhouse,  is  only  enough  to  keep  out  frost,  and  a  degree 
or  two  of  frost  out  of  doors  will  hardly  penetrate  in  a  night, 
so  that  many  people  prefer  the  common  flue  to  hot-water 
pipes,  as  the  heating  is  more  permanent  except  in  a  hard  and 
continued  frost. 

The  greenhouse,  in  places  where  there  is  no  other  glass 
building,  requires  a  careful  selection  of  plants,  first  to  keep 
up  a  diversity,  and  second  to  mind  that  there  be  none  but 
will  agree  with  each  other  in  treatment,  and  do  well  with 
the  like  attention.  Camellias  are  the  most  important,  be- 
cause they  are  noble  plants  in  or  out  of  bloom,  and  in  them- 
selves afford  considerable  variety;  the  red,  white,  blush, 
pink,  and  striped,  form  pretty  contrasts,  and  this  family  is 
by  no  means  tender,  or  difficult  of  management.  Azalea 
indica,  quite  as  hardy,  follows  with  its  gorgeous  flowers 
before  the  camellia  has  left  us,  and  of  this  we  have  scarlet, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTXAGB    BUILDER.  303 

crimson,  pink,   light-rose,  purple,  white,  and  striped.     Ho 
yeas  gives  us  a  rich  deep-blue  pea-flower  early  in  the  spring, 
and  are  as  hardy  as  either  of  the  above.    Cytisus  raceniosus 
yields  a  rich  perfume,  and  is  a  perfect  mass  of  golden-colored 
flowers.     It  is  impossible  to  overlook  geranium?,  which  are 
such  general  favorites;  and  while  we  attend  to  some  of  the 
showy  novelties,  we  must  not  forget  to  provide  half-a-dozen 
of  the  dwarf  scarlets  to  stand  here  and  there  in  the  house, 
for  they  give  a  brilliance  which  hardly  anything  else  will  to 
the  miscellaneous  collection.     Cinerarias,  from  their  gaiety 
and  early  blooming  habit,  ought  not  to  be  omitted ;  and  for 
the  winter,  Chinese  primroses  afford  some  variety  and  are 
very  beautiful.     So  also  some  heaths  may  be  selected  for 
the  sake  of  their  bloom  in  the  winter  months,  and  because 
they  will  stand  among  the  other  plants  we  have  mentioned. 
The  acacias  are  an  interesting  tribe,   nearly  all  yellow  or 
straw-colored  flowers,  but  for  the  most  part  very  abundant 
blooms,  and   as   hardy   as   anything  we   have  mentioned. 
Chorozema  variuni  and  others  make  a  variety  of  foliage  as 
"well  as   flower?,  and  are  adapted  for  greenhouse  culture. 
There  are  many  other  plants  that  would  take  people's  fancy, 
but  a  house  well  filled  with  these  would  be  highly  gratifying, 
whether  there  were  a  few  of  the  best  kinds,  or  a  more  gen- 
eral collection  of  each. 

The  greenhouse  may  be  built  cheaper  than  any  other;  the 
glass  need  not  be  more  than  six  inches  by  four  all  over  the 
house;  it  wants  no  puttied  laps,  no  particularly  expensive 
wood-work,  and  the  brick-work  quite  plain;  the  top-lights 
may  slide  down,  the  front-lights  swing  with  hinges  from  the 
top,  and  opening  outwards,  to  be  propped  out  by  common 
fastenings,  or  they  may  be  made  to  slide — in  which  case, 
however,  the  front  can  but  be  half  opened  at  any  time,  be- 
cause one  window  or  sash  must  be  placed  behind  another. 
In  the  former  plan  the  whole  range  can  be  propped  out,  and 
if  it  were  at  all  desirable,  they  could  be  made  to  push  out 
square  with  the  top,  to  admit  the  whole  space  of  air.     Tho 


306  THE    AMERICAN"    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

front  table  or  shelf  should  be  generally  used  for  small,  choice 
plants  that  require  most  attention,  because  they  can  be 
easily  got  at,  and  best  seen;  the  stage  behind  will  hold  all 
the  larger  ones,  the  more  gaudy  being  the  most  distant;  a 
camellia,  for  instance,  could  be  seen  from  the  most  remote 
corner. 

The  greenhouse,  however,  besides  holding  all  such  plants 
as  we  have  mentioned,  would  forward  hyacinths  considera- 
bly, and  produce  the  flowers  of  all  bulbs  a  month  or  six 
weeks  earlier  than  the  open  ground,  and  perhaps  nothing 
would  contribute  more  to  the  beauty  of  a  greenhouse  culti- 
vation than  a  few  well-chosen  hyacinths,  narcissuses,  &c,  to 
intersperse  among  the  other  plants.  The  greenhouse,  in 
large  establishments,  is  employed  to  assist  in  supplying  the 
conservatory,  so  that  as  soon  as  camellias,  or  azaleas,  or 
any  other  plants,  are  found  enough  in  bloom  to  be  interest- 
ing they  are  removed  to  the  conservatory,  and  their  places 
filled  by  such  plants  as  may  be  brought  forwarder  by  their 
removal  from  the  open  ground.  Roses,  for  instance,  are 
forwarded  by  removal  to  the  greenhouse,  and  if  they  are 
intended  for  forcing  in  a  warmer  temperature,  they  should 
always  be  commenced  by  a  change  from  no  protection  at  all 
to  that  afforded  by  the  greenhouse;  and  when  inured  to  this, 
they  may  be  placed  in  the  forcing  house,  kept  at  first  down 
to  a  low  temperature,  and  gradually  increased;  but  roses 
bloom  well  in  a  greenhouse  without  any  other  aid  than  the 
mere  absence  of  frost  and  chilling  winds. 

The  great  object  in  all  greenhouses  is  to  keep  out  frost 
without  getting  up  the  temperature  too  high;  the  one  is 
necessary,  but  all  that  the  house  is  heated  above  forty-five 
by  day  or  forty  by  night  during  winter,  draws  up  the  plants 
and  renders  them  weakly.  The  geranium  house,  where 
these  plants  are  grown  upon  the  system  of  propping  up  every 
shoot,  will  not  do  with  the  common  treatment  of  a  green- 
house, for  it  has  to  perform  the  part  of  a  forcing-house  as 
well;  the  house  is  frequently  syringed  all  over,  and  shut  up 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  307 

with  the  plants  at  a  temperature  of  fifty-five  to  sixty  degrees; 

then,  being  in  this  excited  state  subject  to  the  green-fly,  the 
plants  require  to  be  frequently  fumigated — an   operation 

which,  since  the  invention  of  Brown's  patent  fumigator,  is 
not  half  the  trouble,  nor  a  quarter  of  the  expense  incurred 
by  the  use  of  the  fumigating  bellows,  or  any  of  the  other 
means  usually  resorted  to.     Thus,  therefore,  although  the 
geranium   does  admirably  in  a  common  greenhouse,   and 
without  any  other  treatment  than  will  do  for  camellias,  and 
heaths,  and  Botany  Bay  plants  generally,  it  is  the  fashion 
to  force  them  for  May  and  June  exhibitions,  to  draw  them 
up  weakly,  and  tie  them  up  to  scores  of  sticks  to  hold  them 
in  their  places;  but  if  we  desire  to  see  geraniums  in  perfec- 
tion, we  must  go  where  they  are  grown  without  heat,  and 
with  plenty  of  room,  light,  and  air;  where  they  support 
themselves  instead  of  requiring  props,  and  where  the  color 
and  texture  of  the  flowers  are  as  superior  as  the  growth  of 
the  plants.     Treat  the  geranium  like  the  camellia  and  the 
heath,  the  tepacris  and  the  azalea,  and  you  will  have  color, 
health,  size,  and  fine  foliage;  force  it,  and  you  impair  all; 
but  as  forced  plants  have  only  to  be  compared  with  forced 
plants,  the  distinction  is  not  seen;  in  short,  the  greenhouse, 
the  single  house  for  the  assemblage  of  all  moderately  hardy 
things,  or  rather  moderately  tender  things,  is  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  horticultural  buildings;  it  is  the  cottage  con- 
servatory, the  pet  house  of  lady  gardeners.     It  stands  al- 
ways open  in  mild  weather;  there  is  always  something  invi- 
ting in  it,  and  it  can  be  always  made  to  supply  a  few  violets, 
a  bit  of  mignonette,  or  a  camellia  bloom,  any  time  in  win- 
ter. 

THE    CONSERVATORY. 

This  may  be  called  the  show-room  of  the  garden,  and 
should  be  attached  to  the  house,  because  it  will  be  visited  in 
all  weathers;  generally  speaking,  it  adjoins  and  opens  out 
of  a  principal  room;  and  as  it  should  be  a  kind  of  winter  gar* 


308  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

den,  it  should  be  large  enough  to  walk  in.  Of  the  form  and 
plan  which  depend  on  a  diversity  of  tastes  among  builders 
and  owners,  we  must  say  but  little,  nor  describe  at  great 
length.  There  are  some  essential  points  to  attend  to,  and 
so  that  these  are  noticed,  we  may  leave  the  external  style 
to  the  artist  and  his  employer. 

First,  the  larger  it  is,  the  more  convenient  and  effective; 
on  this  account  we  begrudge  every  pound  laid  out  in  orna- 
ment at  the  expense  of  size.  It  would  cost  as  much  to 
build  a  trumpery  thing  of  ten  feet  square  after  some  fash- 
ions, as  it  would  to  erect  a  plain  house  of  fifteen  by  thirty; 
and  this  is  the  smallest  we  should  care  to  possess,  for  it 
merely  allows  of  an  eighteen-inch  border  all  round  a  three- 
feet  path,  and  a  slab,  or,  if  preferred,  a  bed  of  six  feet  in  the 
middle;  and  this  is  as  little  as  can  be  made  subservient  to 
an  effective  display. 

The  conservatory  borders  may  be  kept  furnished  with  pot- 
ted plants,  whether  bulbs,  annuals,  or  perennial  shrubs;  and 
as  they  decline  in  beauty,  they  can  be  lifted,  and  others,  in 
the  same  sized  pots,  dropped  into  the  same  holes.  The  cen- 
tre, if  there  be  on  the  establishment  store  greenhouses,  pits, 
and  other  nurseries  for  plants,  should  be  a  slab  or  table, 
because  the  plants  will  be  the  better  for  changing,  while  by 
this  means  the  conservatory  may  always  be  kept  filled  with 
flowers.  The  temperature  of  the  conservatory,  in  which 
stove  as  well  as  greenhouse  plants  are  arranged,  and  where 
forced  flowers,  which  are  more  tender  than  either  in  their 
actual  bloom,  contribute  to  the  show,  should  not  be  under 
fifty  degrees,  because  a  lower  temperature  would  damage 
the  forced  flowers  and  stove  plants,  and  that  atmosphere  is 
not  too  warm  for  greenhouse  plants;  but  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  it  down  as  nearly  to  that  as  possi- 
ble, otherwise  the  hard-wooded  greenhouse  plants  would  suf- 
fer, and  the  bloom  of  many  others  would  be  shortened.  In 
setting  out  the  centre  table,  the  taller  plants  should  be  in  the 
centre,  and  the  shorter  ones  on  each  side,  the  shortest  of  all 


TIIK    A.MKi:lL'AX    COTTAGE    BUILDEB.  309 

being  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  plants  would  form  a  fine 
bank  sloping  on  both  sides.  The  table  should  be  a  foot 
narrower  than  the  space  left  for  a  bed,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  giving  room  to  walk  and  having  room  for  a  row  of 
potted  plants  at  the  foot  of  the  table  all  round.  The  stove 
and  forced  plants  to  be  from  time  to  time  brought  into  the 
conservatory,  should  be  removed,  a  day  or  two  before,  to  the 
coolest  part  of  the  forcing  house,  or  stove,  to  make  the 
change  less  sudden;  because  if,  as  the  stove  generally  is,  a 
plant  is  in  a  temperature  of  sixty-five,  the  sudden  removal  to 
fifty  will  hurt  the  flowers  that  are  out;  and  if  the  forc- 
ing house  is  above  sixty,  the  same  precaution  is  necessary, 
as  a  hardy  plant,  forced  into  flower  by  high  temperature, 
would,  by  a  sudden  change  of  fifteen  degrees,  be  drooping 
directly.  Another  precaution  necessary  is,  to  remove  them 
as  they  come  into  flower,  and  not  wait  until  the  blooms  are 
opened;  a  bud,  even  forward,  will  not  feel  a  change  that 
would  actually  destroy  a  perfect  blossom. 

"We  need  hardly  say  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  keep  a  con- 
servatory well  supplied  with  flowering  plants  the  entire  year 
rouud.  Camellias  may  be  commanded  from  November  to 
April;  rhododendrons,  and  both  Indian  and  American  aza- 
leas, January  till  July;  kalmias  and  other  Americans  can 
be  made  to  help  out  a  great  part  of  this  time  also.  Many 
stove  and  orchideous  plants  can  be  had  all  winter;  bulbs, 
from  Christmas  onwards;  Chinese  primroses  all  winter.  In 
the  spring,  the  greenhouse  will  furnish  cinerarais,  heaths, 
epacrises,  hoveas,  all  the  hard-wooded  plants,  geraniums, 
&c,  which  literally  form  a  blaze  of  bloom.  The  stove  yields 
a  full  share  of  flower;  but  the  difficulty,  it  there  be  any  dif- 
ficulty in  keeping  up  the  show,  is,  when  the  out-of-door 
beauties  predominate;  but  pot-culture  of  out-door  subjects 
must  make  up  for  any  deficiency  of  exotics.  The  passifioris 
of  the  stove  will  see  us  through  June  and  July.  The  hoveas 
contribute  to  the  good  effect.  Balsams  come  at  an  excellent 
time,   to  brighten   the    scene;    and  many  autumnal   roses, 


310  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

grown  out  of  doors,  but  in  pots,  may  be  removed  to  the 
conservatory,  to  aid  and  assist.  Annuals  of  the  better  kind 
in  pots,  are  of  great  use,  as  are  late-flowering  geraniums, 
and  dahlias  in  pots.  Many  climbing  plants,  and,  almost 
every  month  in  the  year,  some  orchids,  enable  us  to  keep  up 
a  good  show  in  the  conservatory.  There  is  rarely  a  month 
in  the  year  without  several  heaths  in  flower,  and  these 
always  last  a  good  while.  In  short,  what  with  retarding 
some  things  and  forcing  others,  flowers  may  always  be  had 
in  moderate  quantity  and  variety. 

To  maintain  a  proper  heat  in  the  conservatory,  some  con- 
sideration must  be  given  as  to  the  means.  The  height  and 
size  must  always  be  considered.  The  most  complete  way, 
as  regards  neatness,  is,  to  put  the  heating  apparatus  under 
the  path ;  but,  as  it  is  not  always  the  most  economical,  there 
must  be  pipe  enough  to  command  the  necessary  temperature 
with  boiling  water,  as  this  requires  less  attention  than 
any  other  mode  of  heating,  and  is  in  general  more  steady. 
If  the  pipes  are  above  ground,  they  are  unsightly,  but  they 
are  more  effective;  and  where  a  six-inch  pipe  and  return 
would  be  wanted  under  the  path,  a  four-inch  pipe  and  return 
would  do,  and  more  than  do,  above.  The  nearer  the  pipe 
runs  to  the  walls,  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  roof,  the  better; 
because,  as  the  heated  air  ascends,  it  then  takes  the  whole 
slope  of  the  roof,  and  falls  in  the  centre  as  it  cools ;  and  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  table  formed  with  a  sort  of  open- 
work, or  wooden  shelves,  of  half-board  width,  with  half-inch 
vacancies  between  them,  because  it  gives  less  obstruction  to 
the  circulation  of  air  which  is  always  going  on  when  one 
part  of  a  house  is  heated. 

The  glass  of  the  sides  should  be  within  twelve  or  eighteen 
inches  of  the  ground,  that  all  parts  of  the  building  may  be 
perfectly  light;  and  if  we  determine  to  hf>ve  the  pipes  above 
ground,  they  must  be  close  to  the  tweive  or  eighteen  inches 
of  brick-work  which  forms  the  base  under  the  fflass.  The 
two  four-inch  pipes,  one  above  another,  will  just  occupy  the 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  311 

space  of  the  brick-work;  and  ifit  be  desirable  to  have  them, 
let  there  be  a  back  made  to  the  border  as  high  as  the  pi] 
and  an  open  iron  shelf  upon  it,  so  that  a  chamber  will  be 
formed,  and  the  circulation  of  air  will  be  increased,  if  from 
the  bottom  of  the  chamber  there  be  openings  here  and  there 
conveyed  under  the  border  to  gratings  in  the  path.     We 
have  in  all  cases  preferred  the  conical  boiler,  and  we  do  in 
this;  but  as  there  is  frequently  a  difficulty  in  finding  a  place 
for  the  firing  without  being  an  eyesore  to  the  conservatory, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  carry  the  pipes  some  distance  under- 
ground.    In  this  case,  make  a  trough  underground  to  hold 
the  pipes,  and  fill  it  up  all  round  the  pipes  with  bruised  or 
pounded  pumice-stone,  (a  complete  non-conductor  of  heat,) 
in  which  the  pipes  will  lose  no  heat — at  least,  suffer  no  per- 
ceptible loss  of  heat,  in  twenty  or  thirty  yards  of  under- 
ground transit.   Of  late,  conservatories  have  been  construct- 
ed upon  such  plans  as  reduce  them  to  mere  covered  gar- 
dens, without  any  means  of  heating,  but  with  all  the  neces- 
sary neatness  and  closeness  required  to  shut  out  the  exter- 
nal air.     Such  conservatories  would  be  formed,  perhaps,  in 
much  the  same  way  as  others  are  for  heating;  but  they  are 
supplied  with  none  but  hardy  and  half-hardy  plants.     With 
great  care  and  attention  to  the  shuttiug-up  in  time,  and  not 
opening  till  the  temperature  of  the  external  atmosphere  has 
been  raised  a  little,  these  conservatories  are  kept  well  fur- 
nished with  camellias,  hoveas,  azaleas,  many  kinds  of  heaths, 
and  others  that  may  be  called  hardy  green-house  plants. 
Numerous  climbing  plants  will  even  stand  all  winter;  but, 
with  the  same  management  that  we  have  already  described, 
a  good  deal  may  be  done  with  plants  just  got  ready  to  flow- 
er, and  brought  into  the  conservatory  to  bloom.    The  study, 
however,  of  a  conservatory  without  heat,  is  peculiar.    There 
is  abundance  of  very  hardy  and  very  early  things — bulbs  in 
particular — which  only  require  absence  of  actual  frost  to 
bring  them  exceedingly  early;  and  such  as  these  will  give 
us  flowers  at  Christmas  after  a  mild  autumn.     There  IS   DQ 


612  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

difficulty,  then,  in  relying  more  on  these  than  on  any  kind 
of  forcing  for  spring  flowers.  The  great  object  is  to  watch 
the  gardens  for  a  year,  and  make  notes  of  all  the  autumn 
and  very  early  spring-blooming  flowers.  By  planting  these 
in  the  borders,  or  growing  them  separately  in  pots,  we  may 
command  them  a  little  earlier,  or  a  little  later.  Violets  may 
be  had  all  the  winter.  Noissette  Fellenberg  and  the  com- 
mon China  rose  may  be  kept  in  bloom  in  pits  and  houses; 
and  therefore  a  succession  may  be  kept  up  in  pots,  to 
change  such  as  go  out  of  bloom.  The  Magnolia  purpurea 
and  conspicua  may  be  planted  out.  Rhododendrons  and 
azaleas  of  the  American  kinds,  and  some  fine  hybrids,  will 
stand  a  moderate  degree  of  frost,  and  therefore  become  very 
useful.  As  a  climber,  Clematis  azurea  grandiflora  is  the 
most  showy  and  beautiful  of  the  whole  family,  and  would 
grow  out  of  doors,  to  say  nothing  of  under  glass.  Those, 
therefore,  who  object  to  a  fire  near  the  house,  or  who  have 
no  convenience  for  it,  may  have  their  winter-garden  under 
glass,  and  always  have  something  growing  and  blooming 
while  frost  and  snow  forbids  a  walk  in  the  open  grounds. 

The  most  economical  form  for  a  conservatory  is  a  ridged 
roof.  The  side  upright  from  the  ground  to  the  lowest  part 
of  the  roof  should  be  not  less  than  eight  feet,  and  ten  would 
look  more  noble.  The  roof  should  rise  seven  feet  six  inches, 
the  lights  should  be  five  feet  nine  inches  wide,  with  a  tie  from 
plate  to  plate  at  every  rafter,  the  nearer  the  better;  and  of 
iron,  that  it  may  be  light.  Climbing  plants  should  be  direct- 
ed to  these,  so  as  to  form  a  pleasing  feature  when  covered ; 
and  there  is  great  choice  for  the  purpose  among  the  pas- 
sifloras,  clematises,  and  other  robust  and  showy  families. 
The  toplights  should  let  down,  the  side-lights,  or  upright 
glass  sides,  as  they  may  be  called,  should  all  open ;  and  as 
the  more  convenient  and  elegant,  as  well  as  useful  plan,  they 
should  be  sashes  like  dwelling-house  windows,  the  lower  ones 
to  push  up,  and  the  upper  ones  to  pull  down.  The  glazing 
of  the  sides  may  be  of  large  glass  panes;  but  for  the  roof, 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  313 

six-inch  width  is  enough,  and  the  length  may  be  anything; 
but,  for  economy,  six  by  four  is  large  enough,  and  by  far  the 
cheapest.  If  the  conservatory  be  planned  thus,  without 
any  extra  ornament,  due  regard  being  had  to  neatness,  good 
workmanship,  and  clear  glass,  you  may  build  such  of  a 
much  greater  extent  for  the  same  money,  than  you  could 
any  of  the  more  fanciful  kinds,  which  cannot  but  get  out  of 
fashion  as  taste  changes;  but,  as  this  form  is  the  best  for 
use,  the  best  for  plants,  the  most  convenient,  and  the  most 
economical,  it  will  never  get  out  of  fashion.  The  interior 
will  be  all  that  can  be  wanted.  The  outside  will  be  the 
form  of  a  thousand  others — the  least  likely  to  take  from,  or 
spoil  the  beauty  of  the  house — the  best  adapted  to  show  off 
the  plants,  and  the  easiest  managed. 

The  luxury,  for  such  it  is,  of  a  winter  garden  under  glass, 
may  be  imagined  better  than  described,  when  we  speak  of 
one  under  our  own  management.  The  wind  was  east;  the 
front  park  of  the  mansion  covered  with  snow,  which  was 
drifting  in  our  face  and  almost  blinding  us  and  the  horse 
we  were  driving;  the  thermometer  down  at  22°.  Noth- 
ing could  be  more  dreary.  A  few  steps  across  the  hall 
of  the  mansion  to  the  drawing-room  on  the  ground  floor 
brought  us  to  another  climate.  The  large  glass  doors  oi 
the  conservatory  were  thrown  open;  there  was  a  good  fire 
in  the  room,  but  the  conservatory  ranged  50°,  and  the 
centre  table  had  a  superb  bank  of  flowers,  as  gaudy  as 
can  be  imagined — splended  camellias,  rkododeudrons,  Ho- 
vea  Celsi,  Azalea  indica  alba,  Epacris  grandiflora,  three  or 
four  heath,  some  fine  orchidese,  especially  Oncidium  papilio, 
numerous  bulbs,  violets,  mignonette,  a  few  China  and  forced 
roses,  formed  a  mass  of  beauty  so  utterly  out  of  season,  and 
contrary  to  the  season  out  of  doors,  that  notwithstanding 
we  had  seen  the  contrast  over  and  over  again,  it  was  so 
striking  after  a  mouth's  absence  that  we  hardly  know 
whether  we  felt  till  then  the  real  charm  of  a  conservatory 

14 


314  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

The  following  objections  are  urged  against  leaving  green* 
houses  open  into  the  house  : 

Every  day  the  many  gallons  of  water  given  to  the  plants 
evaporates  and  rises  into  vapor  to  settle  on  the  various 
objects  within  reach.  Therefore,  in  the  drawing-room,  or 
the  room  adjoining  the  conservatory,  there  should  be  noth- 
ing that  will  take  injury  from  damp,  because  it  will  settle 
in  pure  water  on  the  walls,  and  sink  into  tapestry  curtains, 
the  backs  of  paintings,  the  covers  of  sofas  and  chairs;  in 
short,  it  will  lie  or  hang  in  drops  on  whatever  will  not 
absorb  it,  and  sink  into  all  that  will.  Besides,  therefore, 
having  nothing  that  will  take  injury  in  the  room  adjoining, 
there  should  be  great  care  taken  to  keep  the  conservatory 
doors  shut,  except  when  really  required  open;  and  when 
open,  to  keep  all  the  communications  that  go  from  the  room 
to  the  house  closed.  The  conservatory  should  always  be 
kept  as  open  as  the  weather  will  permit,  to  give  air  to  the 
plants  and  let  off  the  wet,  which  may  be  seen,  when  the 
house  is  closed,  running  down  the  windows  and  walls  in 
copious  streams.  There  is  no  good  without  its  evil,  no  en- 
joyment without  some  corresponding  trouble  to  maintain 
it.  The  conservatory,  so  great  an  ornament,  so  exquisite  a 
luxury,  may,  without  care,  be  the  means  of  producing  sick- 
ness in  the  house,  destroying  the  furniture  and  ornaments, 
and  doing  endless  mischief,  unless  it  be  counteracted  by 
attention.  Let  the  throwing  open  of  the  doors  be  the 
exception  and  not  the  rule.  Keep  the  damp  air  from  the 
house  as  you  would  a  pestilence.  It  is  delightful  to  smell 
the  perfume,  but  it  carries  poison  with  it  if  allowed  to  make 
its  way  all  over  the  house. 

The  same  argument  tells  against  keeping  too  many  plants 
confined  in  dwelling  houses;  remember  that  if  you  pour  a 
few  quarts  of  water  once  a  day  into  the  pots  in  which  they 
grow,  it  will  be  all  gone  in  a  short  time  in  vapor,  and  set- 
tled by  condensation  in  your  curtains,  looking-glasses,  pic- 
tures, the  paper  on  the  walls,   and  iuro   your  own  lungs 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  315 

If  you  must  have  plant?,  let  the  windows  be  open  iu  sum- 
mer, and  moderate  the 'number  in  winter.  It  is  not  that 
plants  are  unwholesome,  or  the  perfume  injurious;  it  is  sim- 
ply the  dampness  which  arises  from  the  soil,  and  which  you 
charge  ready  to  go  off  again  every  time  you  put  water  to 
them.  If  the  same  quantity  of  water  were  sprinkled  all 
over  the  floor  of  a  bed-room,  as  is  frequently  given  to  the 
plants  in  the  same  room,  the  occupant  would  fancy  the 
damp  would  almost  kill  her;  but  gallons  are  distributed 
among  the  plants,  which  give  it  off  again  in  vapor  as  surely, 
if  not  so  quickly,  as  the  floor  would.  Where,  therefore, 
you  keep  plants,  let  them  have  all  the  air  the  whole  day; 
and,  that  you  may  suffer  as  little  as  possible  from  dampness 
water  them  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  and  open  the  win- 
dows. In  winter  this  can  only  be  done  on  fine  days;  but, 
fortunately,  in  winter,  plants  want  but  little  moisture,  be- 
cause it  evaporates  so  slowly  as  to  be  of  no  consequence. 


316  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    XIX, 


COST. 


The  cost  of  building  is  varied  by  the  kind  of  material  of 
which  it  is  built,  the  time  when  it  is  erected,  the  style  and 
character  of  the  workmanship,  and  the  locality  in  which 
the  work  is  done. 

If  the  building  be  of  stone,  in  some  neighborhoods  it 
would  be  cheaper  than  wood,  while  in  others  it  would  be 
dearer.  So  is  it  with  wood:  some  kinds  are  cheap  in  one 
place  and  dear  in  another.  Here  is  the  difficulty  of  attempt- 
ing to  give,  with  any  precision,  in  a  book  of  this  character, 
estimates  which  can  be  relied  upon.  Practical  architects, 
of  any  extended  experience,  have  found  that  builders  do  not 
asree  in  their  estimates,  even  when  made  from  the  same 
drawings  and  specifications,  and  to  be  erected  on  the  same 
spot;  it  is  often  the  case  that  they  vary  thirty  per  cent. 
Another  variation  in  cost,  is  made  in  the  quality  of  the 
workmanship.  All  the  conditions  of  the  architect's  specifi- 
cation may  be  fulfilled  by  the  builder,  and  the  workmanship 
be  thirty  per  cent,  inferior  to  the  work  done  by  another 
builder. 

In  our  statements  as  to  the  cost  of  the  cottage  built  after 
the  designs  which  we  have  presented,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  amount  stated  is  the  average  cost. 

The  Terra  Del  Puegan  Cottage  costs  no  money,  and 
but  little  time,  attention,  or  labor. 

The  Prairie  Cottage  can  scarcely  be  priced;  it  is  never 
built  where  money  circulates,  and  of  course  we  cannot  name 
its  cost  in  money.  The  expenditure  of  labor  is  light,  while 
the  beauty  of  the  design  consists  in  adapting  the  soil  on  the 
spot  to  the  purpose  of  building  the  walls. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  317 

The  Village  Cottage  would  cost  about  uiue  hundred  dol- 
lars;  the  Italian  Gottage  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars;  the  Thatched  Cottage  about  seven  hundred  dol- 
lars; the  Cottage  of  the  Society  for  Improving  the  Con- 
dition of  the  Poor,  nine  hundred  dollars. 

The  cost  of  Prince  Albert's  Model  Cottage  is  not 
stated ;  it  would  be  of  but  little  service  if  it  were,  for  we  do 
not  believe  that  it  will  ever  be  adopted  or  copied  in  this 
country. 

The  Roral  Cottage  is  built  of  brick,  with  the  walls 
arranged  hollow,  and  costs  six  thousand  dollars;  but  if 
built  of  wood,  with  the  walls  in  the  ordinary  manner,  it 
would  cost  about  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars. Beautiful  houses  might  be  made,  of  the  same  size 
after  this  same  design,  at  a  cost  varying  from  three  thou- 
sand five  hundred  dollars  to  five  thousand  dollars. 

Mr.  Fowler's  Octagonal  Cottage  cost  him  about  ten 
thousand  dollars. 

Rural  Home  No.  1  would  cost  about  thirteen  hundred 
dollars;  Rural  Home  No.  2  about  two  thousand  dollars. 
Rural  Home  No.  3  about  one  thousand  five  huudred  dol- 
lars. 

The  Suburban  Residence  which  is  shown  in  the  front- 
ispiece, cost  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 

The  Octagonal  Suburban  Residence,  designed  by  Will- 
cox,  he  estimates  would  cost  fifteen  hundred  dollars. 

The  Byzantine  Cottage  is  estimated  to  cost  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred  dollars. 

The  Gothic  Suburban  Residence,  designed  by  Mr.  Davis, 
was  estimated  to  cost  about  fourteen  thousand  dollars;  but 
we  believe  the  actual  cost  of  the  building  proper  was  eigh- 
teen thousand  dollars,  while  the  expense  of  the  out-build- 
ings, ornaments,  and  decorations,  cannot  be  less  than  three 
to  five  times  that  amount. 


THE    AMERICAN'    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

CHAPTER     XX. 

TWO      RESIDENCES. 
The  Byzantine  Cottage  does  not  ordinarily  suit  the  gen- 
eral observer.     The  reason  is,  because  it  is  Byzantine,  and 
is  in  this  country  usually  found  out  of  place. 


GROUND    PLAN. 


I 

! 

J              1 

i        Jl 

-ilLJLI — i — 

PLAN    OF    SECOND    STORY. 
1.  Porch.      2.  Parlor.      3.  Library.      4.  Parlor.      5.  Dining  Room.      6,  7.  Pas- 
sage Wav.     8.  Kitchen.     9.  Piazza.  "  10.  Pantry.     11.  Passage  Way.     12.  Sleeping 
Boom.     13.  HaU,     14,  15,  16,  17.  Slaepiog  Rooms. 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


319 


The  Gothic  Suburban  Residence  is  situated  at  the  cor- 
ner of  Fifth  avenue  and  Thirty-seventh  street,  New  York, 
and  is  the  residence  of  W.  H.  C.  Waddle,  Esq.  The  archi- 
tect was  A.  J.  Davis,  Esq.,  of  New  York.  The  location  is 
on  one  of  the  highest  portions  of  New  York  city,  the  view 
from  the  tower  taking  in  a  wide  and  extensive  prospect. 


Two  or  three  blocks  to  the  north  is  the  Croton  Water  Dis- 
tributing Reservoir,  covering  nearly  four  acres  ;  immedi- 
ately adjoining  is  the  New  York  Crystal  Palace  and  the 
Latting  Observatory  ;  at  the  north  is  Mount  Vincent,  with 
the  Catholic  institutions,  Mount  Morris,  the  Croton  Water 


320  THE   AMERICAN    COTTAGE   BUILDER. 

Receiving  Reservoir,  covering  about  thirty-three  acres  ;  the 
Harlem  River  and  High  Bridge,  which  is  the  Croton  Aque- 
duct across  the  river;  then  the  thriving  villages  and  towns 
in  Westchester  county.  The  view  also  takes  in  Long  Isl- 
and Sound,  Hell  Gate,  Blackwell's  Island,  with  all  the  city 
buildings — the  East  River  on  one  side  and  the  North  River 

SECOND   FLOOR. 


on  the  other  ;  New  York  Bay,  filled  with  ships,  steamers, 
ferryboats  and  small  craft ;  the  Narrows  and  the  broad 
ocean  ;  Staten  Island,  with  its  farms  and  towns  ;  Govern- 
or's Island,  with  its  fortifications  ;  and  still  further  on,  Fort 
Hamilton,  the  cities  of  Brooklyn,  Williamsburgh,  Jersey 
City,  Newark,  and  numerous  towns  ;  the  Palisades  of  the 
Hudson,  and  the  railroads  branching  into  the  city.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  city  is,  as  it  were,  at  the  feet  of  your 
observation.  Notwithstanding  the  height  of  the  house, 
the  Croton  water  is  supplied  in  the  first  and  second  stories. 
Since  the  engraving  has  been  made,  the  streets  have  been 
lowered  around  the  house,  giving  to  it  a  more  isolated  ap- 
pearance, and  vines  are  creeping  around  the  tower,  as  they 
should  around  every  Gothic  tower,  in  order  to  make  it 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  321 

effective.  The  trees  cover  the  architectural  beauty,  making 
it  more  rare — and  by  the  operation  of  a  universal  law, 
more  bewitching  and  enticing  than  if  it  appeared  exposed. 
It  were  then  repulsive — now  it  is  fascinating. 


322  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 


THE  ARTIST'S  AND  ARTISAN'S   CALLING. 

Relying  upon  the  history  of  the  past,  a  common  error  is 
taught,  that  pure  morals  and  sound  politics  are,  during  the 
XlXth  century,  to  be  promoted  by  the  same  means  that 
were  adopted  in  the  1st  or  Xlth  centuries.  There  was  a 
time  when  the  destinies  of  Rome  were  swayed  by  the  elo- 
quence at  the  Forum.  The  political  action  of  the  State — 
nay,  the  very  construction  of  the  State  itself — was  iudicated 
by  the  eloquence  of  the  orator.  He  was  then  the  Master — 
the  ruling  spirit ;  he  controlled  Senates — he  made  kings — he 
undone  them — he  exiled  them.  The  Inventor  has,  by  the 
production  of  the  printing  press,  banished  the  Forum  and 
the  Tribune — and  the  editor,  quiet  and  alone  in  his  sanctum, 
writes  down  his  thoughts,  his  ideas  and  his  sentiments,  and 
in  a  few  hours  they  are  read  and  considered  by  thousands — 
often  by  hundreds  of  thousands  The  excitement  and  tur- 
moil of  the  crowded  audience  no  longer  need  exist.  He 
who,  by  nature  and  his  own  will,  is  constructed  for  ruling  the 
masses,  can  be  heard  through  the  public  press,  his  voice  reach- 
ing the  firesides  of  the  people,  and  his  plans  and  arguments 
receiving  the  calm,  quiet,  dispassionate  consideration  of  his 
fellow-citizens.  Guizot,  Lamartine,  Girardin  and  Ledru 
Rollin,  who  for  years  ruled  the  French,  had  a  far  greater 
influence  from  their  editor's  chairs  than  from  the  Tribune 

These  noisy,  dangerous,  contaminating  gatherings,  though 
less  dangerous  in  this  age  than  others,  are  being  done  away. 
Even  amusements,  by  the  inventor's  arts  are  transplanted 
from  the  opera  and  the  theatre,  with  their  usual  dangerous 
attendants,  to  the  parlor  and  the  social  circle.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  piano  forte,  and  its  kindred  instruments,  render 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER.  323 

the  performance  of  Handel's,  of  Haydn's,  or  of  Mendelss- 
hon's  most  difficult  compositions,  a  usual  accompaniment  of 
the  fireside — the  sick  wife  and  the  prattling  children,  all  are 
cheered  by  the  music  which  once  was  only  to  be  heard  in 
the  crowded  theatre. 

Not  only  in  man's  social  relations  has  the  Inventor  and 
Artisan  worked  a  revolution,  but  their  power  in  the  politi- 
cal world  is  still  greater  than  that  of  the  so-called  states- 
man. The  needle,  the  press,  the  telegraph,  and  the  steam 
engine,  have  caused  intercourse  among  nations,  and  inter- 
course has  begot  democracy,  fraternity  and  peace.  The 
magnetic  needle  was  used  as  the  unerring  finger  which 
pointed  the  mariner  over  the  trackless  and  unbounded 
ocean — opening  the  new  to  the  old  world.  The  printing 
press  was  the  bearer  and  the  preserver  of  thought  and  intel- 
ligence between  man  and  his  brother — by  the  telegraph,  the. 
mind  of  the  East  flashes  to  the  West  faster  than  travels  the 
day — the  steam  engine  does  man's  labor,  it  bears  his  bur- 
dens over  land  and  sea,  and  causes  men  to  mingle  with  their 
fellow  men.  By  all  these  inventions,  the  interests,  the  prop- 
erty, the  rights,  the  feelings  of  nations  are  bound  up  and 
commingled  with  each  other.  Under  such  circumstances, 
war  is  suicide — peace  is  becoming  a  necessity — "  good  will 
toward  men"  the  universal  sentiment.  But  the  inventoi 
stops  not  here.  la  some  Europeaa  countries  the  statesmen 
turn  beseechingly  to  "  men  of  science,"  and  say,  '•  Tell  us 
how  to  raise  more  grain  on  less  soil,  else  our  people  will 
starve."  No  longer  must  the  wise  man  be  a  "  king's  fool, 
and  the  Artist  a  nobleman's  plaything — they  now  rule.  The 
man  of  science  tells  the  statesman  how  to  raise  more  grain 
oa  less  soil.     The  people  aeed  aot  starve. 

The  cottoa  gia  and  the  spinning  jenny  have  made  tracts 
of  land  valuable  which  otherwise  might  still  have  been  bar- 
ren wastes — has  caused  thriving  and  populous  cities  to  spring 
up  on  "  stony  places,"  and  made  fleets  of  vessels  bedeck 


324  THE  AMERICAN    COTTAGE   BUILDER. 

the  seas  with  their  white  sails,  carrying  on  the  commerce  of 
empires. 

The  world  has  often  been  struck  with  amazement  and 
awe  at  the  boldness,  energy  and  success  of  Napoleon  going 
over  the  Alps,  with  his  armies,  to  cross  swords  with  those  of 
the  trans-Alpine  countries — how  much  more  noble  is  that 
of  the  civil  engineers  and  artisans  of  the  present  day,  who, 
like  the  Turks  of  old,  seeing  no  other  way, 

"  Hew  one  in  the  rock," 

and  go — not  over — but  through  the  Alps,  not  to  cross 
swords,  but  to  bind  the  States  together  with  bars  of  iron — 
the  rail — to  put  them  under  bonds  to  keep  the  peace. 

In  different  ages  some  peculiar  feature  has  been  dominant 
— we  have  had  the  age  of  poetry,  of  arms,  of  theology — 
each  has  shown  out  in  resplendent  lustre.  In  each  of  those 
ages  man's  condition  has  been  improved  and  his  nature  ele- 
vated by  the  practice  of  the  peculiar  feature  which  distin- 
guished the  age.  During  the  Poetic  Age,  by  poetry — during 
the  Heroic  Age,  by  arms  and  conquest — in  the  Theological 
Age,  from  the  pulpit,  the  lectern,  and  the  altar.  From  each 
of  these  periods,  great  names  shine  on  history's  page,  as 
poets,  heroes,  and  fathers  of  the  church.  Each,  in  his  day 
and  generation,  was  great,  because  he  practised  that  which, 
at  the  time,  was  the  greatest  means  of  helping  man  onward 
and  upward. 

The  artist's  calling  in  this  age  is  to  erect,  with  such  beau- 
ty, fitness,  order,  and  propriety,  not  only  Houses  but  Homes 
for  the  people;  so  that  he  will  be  frowned  down  as  a  sacri- 
legious villain,  who  would  lay  upon  it  rude  hands — nay,  ere 
long  the  law  itself  will  protect  it  from  desecration,  from  the 
hand  of  the  despoiler;  even  though  the  owner  may  be  a 
bad  paymaster  or  a  drunkard,  it  will  not  tear  the  wife  aud 
the  children  from  the  perfect  home.  It  is  for  the  artist  to 
decide  when  that  day  shall  come.  The  despoiler  of  beauty 
is  contemned  and  punished  by  the  law  of  man's  godlike  na- 


THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    I3UILDER.  325 

turc,  and  by  the  statut<  3  of  the  land — so  shall  the  Homes 
reared  by  the  artist,  which  develop  the  beaut;  of  perfec- 
tion, be  held  sacred;  and  so  shall  its  despoilers  be  punished. 
Not  now,  but  when  the  artist  shall  rise  up  to  the  dignity 
of  his  calling,  and  become  the  ruler  of  the  world.  Then  the 
possessor  of  a  Home  shall  have  in  it  an  inalienable  interest 
for  himself  and  his  children;  then  the  song  of  "  Home,  Sweet 
Home,"  shall,  from  all  the  people's  hearts,  go  up  from  homes 
blessed  with  the  fruition  of  earthly  joy,  and  not  from  those 
only  who  have  no  home,  except  in  the  memories  of  the  past 
or  the  hopes  of  the  future,  but  seek  tearful  relief  from  the 
thought  in  the  consoling  melody  of  song. 

We  have  seen  the  Inventor  and  Artisan  rising  above  the 
poet,  the  orator,  the  statesman,  and  the  moralist,  causing 
men  from  necessity  to  practise  that  brotherhood  of  which 
the  poet  sang,  the  orator  spake,  and  for  which  the  priest 
prayed.  Take  the  single  article  of  soap;  its  manufacture 
to  any  extent  is  recent — it  created  a  demand  for  palm  oil, 
and  that  demand  did  as  much  as  English  philanthropy  to 
abolish  the  slave  trade.  The  negro  was  needed  to  collect 
the  oil,  and  the  oil  would  sell  better  than  the  negro.  The 
Artisan  constructs  ships  to  carry  the  preachers  of  religion 
to  the  furthermost  corners  of  the  earth — he  tells  them  how 
to  do  the  greatest  good  with  the  least  means,  builds  the 
temples  with  beauty,  fitness  and  propriety,  and,  in  the  prac- 
tice of  his  art,  spreads  life,  liberty  aud  happiness  throughout 
the  earth.  He  prints  the  Bible  so  that  the  blind  may  read; 
the  puniest  arm,  by  his  mechanism,  can  lift  the  ponderous  cap- 
stone on  the  pyramids;  the  eye,  so  weak  that  it  can  scarcely 
see  the  morning  paper  by  the  telescope's  aid,  in  the  twink- 
ling of  an  eye  can  travel  out  in  the  realms  of  space,  taking 
in  its  range  myriads  of  worlds;  the  weak  eye,  in  a  flash, 
rivals  the  beauty  of  a  star  so  far  distaut  that  it  took  light  it- 
self years  to  travel  from  it  to  the  earth.  The  thunders  of  the 
Vatican,  which  once  rent  nations  in  twain,  are  now  lost  in 
air;  aud  th  aing,  snorting  locomotive — the  emblem  of 


326  THE    AMERICAN    COTTAGE    BUILDER. 

intercourse,  the  bearer  of  commerce,  the  causer  of  comfort, 
of  plenty  and  peace — is  more  powerful  than  they. 

The  pcean  of  the  in-coming  millennium  is  being  sung,  the 
strains  of  the  poet,  the  persuasions  of  the  orator,  the  chant- 
ings  of  the  priest,  are  heard ;  but  over  all  and  above  all  arises 
the  tenor  of  the  song,  the  clear,  pellucid  ring  of  the  Artisan's 
hammer,  which  shall  swell  louder  and  louder,  till 

<:  The  loud  requiem  of  the  world  shaU  swell," 

when,  in  harmonious  numbers,  it  shall  chime  in  and  be  lost  in 
the  songs  of  those  who  chant  the  seraph's  lay  around  the 
great  white  throne  of  the  Father. 


THE     END 


^rrjjitwfs  aito  fmilkrs  ^RubinttiiJarj  Series. 

ii  %  —  ■ 

Fl  R  ST     SERIES. 

THE  HISTORY  &  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


EMBRACING  : 


I.  The  Orders  of  Architecture: 
II.  Architectural  Styles  of  Va- 
rious Countries  : 
III.  The  Nature  and  Principles 


of  Design  in  Architecture  : 
IV.  An  Accurate  and  Complete 
Glossary  of  Architectural 
Terms. 


FOR    THE    USE    OF 

Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  Engineers  and  Mechanics. 

Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK,  Architect. 

Neatly  bound  in  Cloth,  with  numerous  Engravings.     Price,  75  Cents. 

OPINIONS  OF  THE   PRESS. 

"This  is  the  first  of  Stringer  *  Townsend's  Architectural  Series  for  the  People.  It  is  a  work  of 
great  Talue  to  the  Architect,  Builder,  En;m»T,  and  General  Mechanic.  The  volume  treats  of  the 
various  styles  of  architecture  id  various  countries  ;  the  nature  of  design  in  architecture,  and  its  prin- 
ciples; and  includes  a  complete  glossary  of  architectural  terms." — Albany  Evening  Atlas. 

"The  design  is  not  to  give  the  works  in  all  thetr  details,  hut  to  treat  the  suhject  comprehensively, 
so  that  while  the  reader  and  student  will  understand  the  subject,  he  will  not  be  obliged  to  gtve  to  it 
the  detailed  and  scientific  study  which  would  ehe  be  required."— Baltimore  Patriot. 

"The  editor  has  performed  the  work  of  compilation  with  thoroughness  and  great  care,  condensing 
in  a  small  compass  information  that  is  usually  spread  over  a  much  larger  space." — Portland  (Me.) 
Transcript, 

"Such  a  w  >rk  was  greatly  needed,  and  will  be  of  especial  utility  and  interest  in  a  country  like  this. 
The  authors  have  manag*sj  to  make  tins  a  readable  as  well  as  instructive  work.  It  should  have  a 
wide  sale." — Bpslon  Literary  Museum. 

S  ECO  N  D     SERIES. 

THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  THE  ART  OF  BUILDING. 

REPRESENTED    IN    FIVE    SECTIONS. 


IV.  Use  of  Materials; 
V.  Working  Drawings,  Specifi- 
cations and  Drawings. 
Appendix. — Woods  of  N.  Amer'a 


I.  The  General  Principles  of 

Construction  ; 

II.  Materials  used  in  Building  ; 
III.  Strength  of  Materials; 

FOR   THE   USE   OF 

architects,  UuinJtra,  Srautrfjtsmcn,  fHac&inists  ant)  Crtgtrttcr*. 
Edited  by  JOHN  itlLLOCK,  Architect. 

Neatly  bownd  in  Cloth,  with  numerous  Illustrations,  uniform  with  "  The 
Rudiments  of  Architecture."     Price,  "5  Cents. 

OPINIONS  OF  THE   PRESS. 

"This  is  a  volume  of  great  importance  to  architects,  m  ach'nists,  mechanics  and  builders.     It  isval. 

■     'lie  general  reader,  who  may  desire  information  upon  the  subject  of  building,  or  arcbi- 

-••  generally." — Hartford  Republican. 

"This  is  really  a  valuable  book.    It  brings  down  to  the  comprehension  of  every  mind  an  important 

and  in-  towing  the  principle*  or  conatroctinn.  i  i-eJ   in  bojMtog,  their  reliiive 

Us,  and  the  manner  in  which  tiiey  are  to  be  applied.    The  drawing,  ami  ape  ire  na» 

r  lie.     It  >s  worthy  of  the  perusal  of  every  median  •  iallj  of  young  person-." 

"  A  valuable  elementary  treatise,  presenting  a  great  variety  of  exact  and  intellibible  details,  •»- 
md  familiar  language,  and  not  .-:.  R  Mi  a  -mi  ■■rfluily  of  irrelevant  • 

this  little  work  forms  an  excellent  manual  for  the  practical  or  the  amateur  bunder."— N .  V.  Iribune, 

"This  work  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  worke-  in  wood,  lor  it  contains  a  vast  fund  of  useful 
information    I  <f  building.     It  has  over  one  hundred  illustrations,  and 

ia  sold  at  the  low  price  of  75  tents." — Albany  Evening  Journal 

STRINGER  &  TOWNSEND,  Publishers,  222  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


An  Indispensible  Work  for  the  Mechanic,  the  Engineer  &  the  Artist. 

Cjjc  IJnidiml  Jlnuigfjismmt's 
BOOK  OF  INDUSTRIAL  DESIGN ; 

FORMING  A  COMPLETE  COURSE  OF 

Mechanical,  Engineering  &  Architectural  Drawing. 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  FRENCH  OF  THE 

MESSRS.    ARMENGAUD    AND    M.   AMOUROUX, 

WITH   ADDITIONS  AND   IMPROVEMENTS 
BY    PROFESSOR.    WILLIAM    JOHNSON. 

GENERAL  CONTENTS : 

LINEAR  DRAWING. — THE  STUDY  OF  PROJECTION.— ON  COLOURING  SECTIONS,  WITH  AP- 
PLICATIONS.— THE  INTERSECTION  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SURFACES,  WITH  APPLICA- 
TIONS.— THE  8TUDV  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  TOOTHED  C  EAR— ELEMENTA  RY  PRINCI- 
PLES OF  SHADOWS.— APPLICATION  OF  SHADOWS  TO  TOOTHED  GEAR. — THE  CUTTING 
AND  SHAPING  OF  MASONRY. — THE  STUDY  OF  MACHINERY  AND  SKETCHING. —  OBLIQUE 
PROJECTIONS. — PARALLEL  PERSPECTIVE. — TRUE  PERSPECTIVE. — EXAMPLES  OF  FIN- 
ISHED DRAWINGS  OF  MACHINERY. — DRAWING    INSTRUMENTS. 

Inone  quarto  volume,  containing  105  pages  of  Steel  Plates.  75  Wood  Engravings,  and  200 
pages  of  Letterpress.     Bound  in  cloth.  $650  :  in  half  Turkey,  $8  00. 

This  superb  work  has  been  prepared  by  its  distinguished  Editor  to  meet  the  require- 
ments so  long  felt  of  a  comprehensive  treatise  on  Industrial  Design.  His  aim  has  beeu 
to  present  the  well-known  French  work  in  a  much  improved,  English  i'orm,  and  at  a  price 
brought  within  the  reach  of  all. 

Every  Principal,  Mechanic,  Builder,  Machinist,  Engineer,  and  Artist,  has  felt  the  want 
of  a  complete  course  of  Industrial  Design — not  a  mere  collection  of  the  first  principles  of 
Geometrical  Drawing,  but  a  work  that  would  be  uselul  as  well  in  Schools  and  Colleges 
as  in  the  Workshop  and  Drawing  Offices  of  the  Engineer  and  Architect. 

The  special  mission  of  the  Practical  Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  De- 
sign may  almost  be  gathered  from  its  title-page.  It  is  intended  to  furnish  gradually  de- 
veloped lessons  in  Geometrical  Drawing,  applied  directly  to  the  various  branches  of  the 
Industrial  Arts  :  comprehending  Linear  Design  proper  ;  Isometrical  Perspective, 
or  the  study  of  Projections  ;  the  Drawing  of  Toothed  Wheels  and  Eccentrics  ; 
with  Shadowing  and  Colouring  :  Oblique  Projections  ;  and  the  study  of  paral- 
lel and  exact  Perspective  :  each  division  being  accompanied  by  special  applications 
to  the  exten°:ve  ranges  of  Mechanics,  Architecture,  Foundry-Work3,  Carpen- 
try, Joinery,  Metal  Manufactures  generally,  Hydraulics,  the  construction  of 
Steam  Engines,  and  Mill- Work.  In  its  compilation,  the  feeble  attraction  generally 
offered  to  students  in  elementary  form  has  been  caiefujly  considered  ;  and  after  every 
geometrical  problem,  a  practical  example  of  its  application  has  been  added,  to  facilitate 
its  comprehension  and  increase  its  value.  A  series  of  Plates,  marked.  A,  b,  &c,  are 
also  interspersed  throughout  the  work,  as  examples  of  finished  drawings  of  machinery. — 
The  Letterpress  relating  to  these  Plates,  together  with  an  illustrated  chapter  on  Drawing 
Instruments,  forms  an  appropriate  Appendix  to  the  Volume.  The  general  explanatory 
text  embraces  not  only  a  description  of  the  objects  and  their  movements,  but  also  tables 
and  practical  rules,  more  particularly  those  relating  to  the  dimeusious  of  the  principal  de- 
tails of  machinery,  as  facilitating  actual  construction. 

From  W.  Jl.  Norton,  Esq..  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  Yule  College. 
In  the  Practical  Draughtsman  we  at  last  have  a  work  on  Industrial  design,  at  the  same  time  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  in  its  scone  anil  minute  in  its  detail  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  6tudent  of  en- 
gineering. My  opinion  of  its  merits  is  abundantly  indicated  by  the  fact  that  I  have  adopted  it  as  a 
text  book  in  the  School  of  Engineering  attached  to  Yale  College  So  far  as  I  have  made  use  of  it,  T 
find  that  it  meets  my  expectations,  and  doubt  not  that  it  will  give  general  satisfaction,  ifintroduced 
into  our  Engineering  and  Industrial  Schools.  \V.  A.  Norton, 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  Vale  College. 

From  the  Practical  Mechanic's  Journal,  (  Glasgow.) 
Such  a  book  in  English  was  greatly  needed.  We  possess  for  the  first  time  in  our  literature  a 
standard  work,  in  many  respects  greatly  superior  to  the  French  volume.  Every  page  is  full  of  pleas- 
ant instruction,  and  demonstrates  competent  intelligence  and  excessive  care.  The  original  work  is 
a  class  book  in  the  Industrial  Schools  fin  the  continent,  and  the  present  English  form  of  it  will  hold  a 
high  place  wherever  its  subject  is  studied,  either  in  our  own  lands  or  in  the  United  States.  It  is  from 
its  cheapness  one  of  the  few  good  books  which  every  principal  should  possess  as  a  work  of  reference, 
and  which  every  learner  should  have  readily  accessible  for  constant  study. 

Published  by  STKINGER  &  TOWNSEND,  222  Broadway,  N.  Y., 
and  sold  by  all  Booksellers. 

K.  B. — The  Practical  Draughtsman  was  originally  pub'is-hed  in  13  Parts,  at  37j-£  cents  each.  Sete 
of  the  work,  and  separate  parts,  can  always  be  obtained  in  that   form. 


